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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 12, No. 3
Publication Date: June 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/aivp.123.17111.
Kannan, S. V., Ravikumar, V., & Sangeetha, J. V. V. (2024). Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza Sativa)
Productivity Under Drip Irrigation. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(3). 389-397.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza
Sativa) Productivity Under Drip Irrigation
S. Vallal Kannan
ORCID:0000-0003-3319-9485
Coastal Saline Research Centre,
Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu
V. Ravikumar
Department of soil and water conservation,
Agricultural Engineering College and Research
Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Sangeetha Jebalin V V
Department of Agronomy, Agricultural College
and Research Institute, Madurai 625104
ABSTRACT
A study was undertaken between 2020 and 2022 three years during the rabi
season at Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute in Kumulur with
an aim to determining the optimal method of establishment, suitable paddy
variety, and crop geometry with spacing for maximizing rice productivity in the
standardized drip irrigation system. Experiment utilized a strip plot design, with
two main establishment methods (direct seeding on raised beds and transplanting
on flatbeds), three medium varieties (ADT 54, 'TKM 13', and 'CR 1009 sub-1') as
subplot treatments, and three different spacing configurations and crop geometry
at 20 x 10 cm (rectangle) conventional recommended spacing, 20 x 20 cm
(square), and 25 x 25 cm (square) as sub-sub plot treatments. Plant height, total
tillers count, productive tillers count, filled grains per panicle; test weight, grain
yield, and straw yield were measured. Furthermore, an economic assessment
encompassing cultivation expenses, gross income, net income, and Benefit-Cost
Ratio (BCR) was carried out. Water-use efficiency was calculated by dividing the
dry weight of grain yield (in kg/ha) by the total irrigation and rainfall (in ha.
mm).The findings indicated that direct seeding emerged as the superior method
for establishing drip-irrigated rice cultivation. The most suitable combination
treatment for achieving the growth and yield factors, highest grain yield (6080
kg/ha), net income (Rs. 64059/ha), benefit-cost ratio of 2.37, and enhanced water
use efficiency (6.61 kg. ha-mm-1) involved direct-seeded rice on raised beds using
a medium-duration variety with a spacing of 20x20cm with other recommended
agronomic practices. This approach aims to improve both crop and water
efficiency amid constraints in water availability.
Keywords: Drip irrigation, crop geometry, methods of establishment, WUE, and Water
productivity.
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Rice (OryzasativaL.) is a semi-aquatic crop that is grown as a stable crop in most of the
countries in the world. UNESCO stated that the water footprint for rice production in India is
2020 m3 per tonne, contrasting with the worldwide average of 1,325 m3 per tonne [1]. Rising
water requirements and the limited efficiency of water use in irrigated arid areas are driving
farmers to embrace resource-conserving techniques like dry seeding and non-flooded rice
cultivation. Anticipated by 2050, there is an estimated 25% increase in the demand for rice,
coupled with a 30 to 40% shortfall in underground water, as reported by the Times of
Agriculture in 2023. Enhancing water productivity is achievable through the adoption of
various water-conserving practices within improved irrigation management [2]. Water use
efficiency can be enhanced by improving yield or by conserving water [3]. Drip irrigation
holds the capacity to decrease water usage by 50% and concurrently raise yield by 25–30%.
Drip irrigation conserves 40–50% of the water utilized for paddy cultivation. Drip irrigation
systems incur additional production costs for rice cultivation. The expenses associated with a
drip irrigation system hinge on factors such as the number of laterals (spacing), the number of
drippers (spacing or emitters) per unit area, and other essential components. A well-designed
and properly operated drip irrigation system can achieve higher levels of irrigation efficiency
compared to surface irrigation. However, inadequate design or improper operation can
significantly diminish the irrigation efficiency of a drip system, leading to reduced potential
and decreased levels of acceptance and adoption.
The optimized drip design related to soil and crop holds significance in enhancing
productivity by minimizing input costs in production, ultimately contributing to improved
profitability. Against this backdrop, the research was undertaken to determine the appropriate
method of establishment, variety, and spacing with crop geometry, aiming to increase rice
production while achieving higher water productivity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research took place at the Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute
(TNAU) in Kumulur, Tamil Nadu, India, spanning three years from 2020 to 2022, specifically
during the Rabi season. The experimental plot had a sandy clay loam soil texture with a field
capacity of 25% and 1.63g/cm3 of bulk density. The primary goals of the research were to
identify variety, establishment, and crop geometry to enhance crop and water productivity in
a standardized drip method of irrigation. The experiment followed to address three key
aspects: 1) evaluating the method of establishment, 2) assessing varietal suitability, and 3)
identifying crop geometry conducive to higher production and productivity in the
standardized method of drip irrigation system.
Method of Establishment
The main field was prepared under two distinct conditions: one in dry circumstances and the
other in wet conditions. In dry conditions, raised beds and channels measuring 60 cm x 30 cm,
with a height of 25 cm were established over a length of 50 m.
Under dry conditions, seeds treated with three different varieties were planted in beds
according to specific spacing treatments. Pre-emergence herbicide Pretilachlor was applied
three days after sowing (DAS) in directly sown rice. Gap filling was carried out on the 12th
day after sowing (DAS) and maintained with a full establishment rate. In wet conditions,
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Kannan, S. V., Ravikumar, V., & Sangeetha, J. V. V. (2024). Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza Sativa) Productivity Under
Drip Irrigation. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(3). 389-397.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.123.17111
germinated seeds were planted in mat nurseries and managed using the System of Rice
Intensification (SRI) nursery techniques. Seedlings, aged 18 days, were transplanted, and gap
filling was conducted on the 8th day after transplantation (DAT), maintaining a full
establishment rate.
In both scenarios, drip irrigation lines were laid out at intervals of 90cm with emitters spaced
50cm apart (delivering 4 liters per hour) positioned at the center of the beds. Irrigation was
applied at 100% of potential evapotranspiration (PE) every other day, and fertigation was
implemented at 100% of the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) at a rate of 150:60:60 NPK
Kg/ha. The basal phosphorus dose was administered using superphosphate at a rate of
375kg/ha, while nitrogen and potassium were supplied via urea (326 kg) and Muriate of
Potash (100kg), applied through drip irrigation once every six days.
Varietal suitability and crop geometry:
The experiment was executed in the field during the Rabi season by employing a strip plot
design. The main plot treatments focused on two establishment methods, the sub-plot
treatments involved three varieties, and the sub-sub-plot treatments considered different
geometries (spacing). The specifics of the treatments are outlined below. Main plot treatment
(Method of establishment): M1: Direct seeding on a raised bed(dibbling), M2: Transplanting on
a flatbed. Subplot treatment (Varieties): V1: ADT 54, V2: TKM 13, V3: CR 1009 sub-1. Sub-sub- plot treatment (Spacing): S1: 20 x 10 cm (Rectangular) (50 hills/m2) S2: 20 x 20 cm (Square)
(25 hills/m2) S3: 25 x 25 cm (Square) (16 hills/m2).
Transplanting seedling was raised in the dapog method on the same day of seeding on a
raised bed and transplanted 14 days old seedlings maintained the same age in all the
conditions.
Irrigation, based on meteorological data from AEC&RI, Kumulur, was applied at 100%
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) on alternate days through the drip method of irrigation.
Water use efficiency and water productivity were subsequently computed. The total water
applied for directly seeded rice was 920 mm, and for transplanted rice, it was 960 mm
(including 40 mm for puddling). The calibrated 920mm quantity of water was applied
regardless of variety, and spacing, through a drip irrigation system. Drip irrigation scheduling
was determined according to daily potential evapotranspiration (PE) values at different crop
growth stages.
Paddy having crop factors at the initial (1.15) stage, crop development stage (1.23),
reproductive stage (1.14), and maturity stages (1.02), with a consistent pan factor of 0.7 was
applied.
Plant height and the total tillers (numbers), productivity tillers (numbers), filled grains
(numbers/panicle), test weight, grain, and straw yield, were observed. Additionally, an
economic analysis involving the cost of cultivation, gross income, net income, and BCR was
conducted. Water-use efficiency was determined by calculating the dry weight of grain yield
(kg/ha) and dividing it by the sum of irrigation and rainfall (ha. mm). The pooled data were
analyzed using AGRES software, a mean comparison was carried out based on critical
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difference at a 5 % probability level, and the results for economics, water use efficiency, and
water productivity were tabulated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The findings unveiled a distinct impact as well as a collective influence on paddy yield, water
use efficiency, water productivity, and economic aspects.
Influence of Method of Establishment on Paddy Yield, Economics, And Water Use
Efficiency
In uniform, wetting diameter was achieved at laterals at 90cm spacing and drippers at 60cm
with a 4lph discharge rate, and the crop was established both under dry and wet conditions.
The consolidated findings from the research conducted during three years of study from 2020
to 2022, considering the combined data on individual factor contributions to yield by
enhancement in productive tillers and filled grains, economics, and water use efficiency, plant
height did not significantly differ with method of establishment and spacing. However, the
difference was observed among varieties, tallest plant at harvest (136cm) was observed in CR
1009 sub 1 and demonstrated that the direct-seeded method of establishment resulted in
superior crop growth, yield factors and yield, net income, and BCR under drip method of
irrigation (Table I). Therefore, the recommendation is to employ the direct-seeded method
when using drip irrigation systems in paddy cultivation might contribute to a higher number
of productive tillers and filled grains [4]. Employing drip fertigation at 1.5 times the Potential
Evaporation (PE) with the entire recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) using conventional
fertilizers led to notably increased weight of panicle, productive tillers(numbers), total grains
(numbers per panicle), and paddy yield (specifically, 3.97 g, 25.1 hill-1, 167.6, and 5451 kg-ha- 1, respectively). The increase in yield reached 61.84% when employing surface irrigation with
the application of fertilizers to the soil. Examining various irrigation methods in paddy fields,
it was observed that the rice grain yield was higher in drip irrigation (6950 kg/ha) compared
to both flood irrigation (6225 kg/ha) and sprinkler irrigation [5]. Additionally, paddy
cultivation under drip irrigation demonstrated greater water use efficiency at 17.1 kg ha1
mm-1. In the dry season, the drip method of irrigation consistently exhibited higher water
productivity compared to surface flooding [6].
Table I: Influence of individual factors on crop yield parameters, paddy yield,
economics, and water use efficiency. (Three years of pooled data)
Treatments Productive
tillers(m2
)
Filled
grains
(m2
)
Grain
yield
(t/ha)
Net income
(Rs. /ha)
Water Use
Efficiency (Kg. /ha- mm)
BCR
Method of establishment
M1: Direct-seeded 278 32272 5.31 51976 5.77 2.11
M2: Transplanted 238 27525 4.59 41299 4.78 1.88
Mean 258 29899 4.95 46638 5.28 2.00
SED 1.24 964 0.26 0.07
CD(p=0.05) 2.78 1452 0.41 0.14
Varieties
V1: ADT 54 253 29078 4.71 43007 5.02 1.92
V2: TKM 13 344 39416 5.26 51161 5.62 2.10
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Kannan, S. V., Ravikumar, V., & Sangeetha, J. V. V. (2024). Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza Sativa) Productivity Under
Drip Irrigation. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(3). 389-397.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.123.17111
V3:CR 1009 sub 1 177 2123 4.88 45745 5.20 1.98
Mean 258 29899 4.95 46638 5.28 2.00
SED 0.98 678 0.23 0.04
CD(p=0.05) 1.42 1242 0.38 0.11
Spacing
S1: 20 x 10 cm
(Rectangular)
275 27184 4.42 37189 4.71 1.80
S2: 20 x 20 cm
(Square)
246 30071 4.94 45861 5.26 1.98
S3: 25 x 25 cm
(Square)
197 48960 4.22 33541 4.50 1.72
Mean 239 35405 4.53 38864 4.82 1.83
SED 1.04 864 0.14 0.06
CD(p=0.05) 1.96 1328 0.31 0.13
Influence of Variety on Paddy Yield, Economics, And Water Use Efficiency
The outcomes of the research carried out over three years 2020 to 2022, utilizing data from
three years, indicated that among the three medium-duration paddy varieties, TKM 13,
specifically recommended for dry conditions and known for its high yield potential, exhibited
superior performance. This variety demonstrated higher paddy grain yield, net income, and
BCR, showcasing increased efficiency under the drip method of irrigation (Table I), with
marginal distinctions observed among the different varieties.
Influence of Crop Geometry on Yield, Economics, And Water Use Efficiency
Individual plant productivity, or productivity per unit, is contingent on the crop geometry and
facilitates efficient resource utilization. Among the three spacing, recommended spacing
(20x10 cm), the modified square method (20x20 cm), and the wider spacing and square
method advocated for a system of rice intensification, the modified square method (20x20
cm) exhibited superior performance in terms of yield factors and grain yield, net income, and
water use efficiency in drip method of irrigation (Table I).
A higher count of productive tillers, specifically 278, 344, and 246 per square meter, was
documented under individual treatments of direct seeding (M1), TKM 13 (V2), and 20x20cm
spacing (S2) when compared to transplanted (M2), other varieties, and alternative spacing
treatments. This trend persisted across all parameters, including productive tillers, filled
grains per square meter, and grain yield (kg/ha). Notably, elevated net returns of Rs.
51,976/ha, Rs. 51,161/ha, and Rs. 45,861/ha were observed under the individual treatments
of direct seeding (M1), "TKM 13" (V2), and 20x20cm (Square method) (S2), in contrast to the
transplanted (M2) establishment method, other varieties, and different spacing treatments.
This pattern was consistent in the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) as well, with values of 2.11, 2.10,
and 1.98, respectively. Superior water use efficiency, specifically at 5.77, 5.62, and 5.26
kg/ha.mm-1, was documented under the individual treatments of direct seeding (M1), 'TKM
13' (V2), and 20x20cm spacing (Square method) (S2) in comparison to alternative treatments.
A similar trend was also observed in water productivity. Effect of different crop
establishment techniques and revealed that square planting significantly influenced SRI on
paddy crop growth and paddy yield characteristics[7]. This might be due to sufficient
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resources without crop competition. Substantial rise in grain yield when utilizing subsurface
drip irrigation at a lateral distance of 0.8 m and a discharge rate of 1.0 Lph (5389 kg ha−1), as
opposed to the control irrigation method (4181 kg ha−1)[8]. Drip irrigation positively
influenced root oxidizing power, canopy photosynthesis, and the allocation of dry matter.
Furthermore, water productivity for aerobic rice doubled under the drip irrigation system
Combination Treatments of Crop Method of Establishment, Crop Variety, Crop
Geometry and Their Effect on Paddy Yield, Water Use Efficiency, And Water
Productivity:
Outperformed treatment combinations, as detailed below (Table II).
Table II: Effect of combination treatment of establishment methods, varieties, and plant
geometry on growth, yield, and water use efficiency in rice (Pooled data of three years)
Treatments Plant
height at
harvest
(cm)
Number of
productive
tillers
(Nos./ m2
)
Number of
filled
grains
(Nos./ m2
)
Grain
yield
(kg/ha)
Net
return
(Rs.
/ha)
BCR WUE
(Kg/
ha- mm)
Water
productivity
(Rs. /m3
)
M1V1 S1 112 300 29,400 4645 40,673 1.87 5.05 8.08
M1V1 S2 109 250 29,500 4779 43,189 1.92 5.19 8.31
M1V1 S3 114 224 27,776 4555 38,934 1.83 4.95 7.92
M1V2 S1 106 400 40,800 5386 52,670 2.13 5.85 9.37
M1V2 S2 102 375 45,375 6080 64,059 2.37 6.61 10.57
M1V2 S3 104 256 32,768 4424 34,629 1.74 4.81 7.69
M1V3 S1 128 200 18,800 4286 34,182 1.73 4.66 7.45
M1V3 S2 124 150 19,800 4554 38,864 1.83 4.95 7.92
M1V3S3 118 160 20,480 4751 42,872 1.92 5.16 8.26
M2V1 S1 118 200 20,200 3192 17,966 1.38 3.32 5.32
M2V1 S2 112 200 24,400 3953 30,345 1.65 4.12 6.59
M2V1 S3 116 192 24,192 3967 30,130 1.64 4.13 6.61
M2V2 S1 118 350 34,300 4528 39,292 1.84 4.72 7.55
M2V2 S2 112 350 39,900 5347 53,196 2.14 5.57 8.91
M1V2 S3 114 224 26,880 3629 22,661 1.48 3.78 6.05
M2V3 S1 136 200 19,600 4469 38,351 1.82 4.66 7.45
M2V3 S2 132 150 21,450 4934 45,511 1.97 5.14 8.22
M2V3S3 134 128 17,280 4009 32,018 1.68 4.18 6.68
SED 6 468 96
CD
(p=0.05)
NS 14 932 172
Treatment Details are Given Under Materials and Methods
Table III outlines, the cumulative impact of treatments on rice yield, while Fig I illustrate the
examination of water use efficiency and water productivity as part of a comprehensive
technology framework for drip irrigation systems. Additionally, Fig II depicts alterations in
net income based on the research conducted throughout three years (2020 to 2022).
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Kannan, S. V., Ravikumar, V., & Sangeetha, J. V. V. (2024). Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza Sativa) Productivity Under
Drip Irrigation. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(3). 389-397.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.123.17111
Table III: Influence of combination treatment of the method of establishment, variety,
and spacing (crop geometry) on yield of rice (kg/ha) (three years pooled data)
Treatments M1 M2
S1 S2 S3 Mean S1 S2 S3 Mean
V1 4645 4779 4555 4660 3192 3953 3967 3704
V2 5386 6080 4424 5297 4528 5347 3629 4501
V3 4286 4554 4751 4530 4469 4934 4009 4471
Mean 4772 5138 4577 4063 4745 3868
Main
plot (M)
Subplot(S) Sub-sub
plot (Sb)
Interaction
(MxS)
Interaction
(SxSb)
Interaction
(SbxS)
Interaction
(M xSb)
Interaction
(SbxM)
Interaction
(MxSxSb)
SED 26 23 14 51 76 81 63 74 58
CD
(p=0.05)
41 38 31 85 105 137 95 123 91
Treatment details are given under Materials and Methods
The combination of the direct seeded sowing method (M1) with 'TKM 13' (V2) at a spacing of
20 x 20 cm (Square method) (S2) demonstrated superior performance, recording a higher
count of productive tillers (375/m2), filled grains (45,375/m2), paddy grain yield (6080
kg/ha), net income (Rs. 64,059/ha), benefit-cost ratio (2.37), water use efficiency (6.61 kg. ha- mm1), and water productivity (Rs. 10.57.m-3) The crop was reached harvesting stage 9 days
earlier in direct-seeded rice when compared to the transplanted method of establishment.
Enhancing crop productivity resulted in an indirect rise in water resources, and improving
water productivity emerged as a viable strategy to mitigate the utilization of non-renewable
water resources [9].
Employing micro-irrigation in Direct Seeded Rice (DSR) holds the ability to enhance Water
Use Efficiency (WUE) by reducing the crop's water needs, minimizing runoff and deep
drainage losses, and conserving energy [10]. In their 2015 research, Examined on yield of
aerobic rice using drip fertigation and findings indicated that employing a 100%
Recommended Dose of Fertilizers (RDF) by drip method of irrigation along with fertigation
with water-soluble fertilizer resulted in higher plant height, number of tillers per hill, number
of leaves per hill, total dry matter production, grain and straw yield [11]. Solutions to water
challenges and the broader requirements for efficient input management and increased
production efficiency will be addressed by technologies such as drip irrigation and fertigation
[5]. Utilization of drip irrigation resulted in a 29% enhancement in aerobic rice yield, a 50%
improvement in water-saving efficiency, and subsequently, elevated water productivity. This
approach is also positively influenced by root oxidizing ability, plant photosynthesis, and the
partitioning of dry matter production [8]. Optimal approach for enhancing rice productivity
involves the adoption of drip irrigation technology. This method allows for increased
productivity with minimal water usage, leading to higher yields. Additionally, it proves to be a
cost-effective alternative to traditional irrigation methods in rice farming and contributes to
an ecologically sustainable reduction in overall water consumption for rice crops[12]. In the
aerobic rice production system, [13] found that drip irrigation resulted in higher water use
efficiency and performance on productivity compared to conventional method of irrigation of
flooding. The application of drip fertigation has led to an increase in rice yields ranging from
14.7% to 29.9%, surpassing those achieved through traditional flooding methods [14]. Micro- irrigation technologies, including drip irrigation, have proven to be effective in conserving
water, especially in water-intensive rice cultivation, without compromising yield. With drip
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 12, Issue 3, June-2024
irrigation, aerobic rice cultivation can be successfully managed by ensuring adequate
moisture levels in the root zones. Surpassing the typical levels of drip irrigation (100–120%)
significantly boosts crop yields in comparison to alternative irrigation techniques. More
precisely, it leads to yield increments of 28.92%, 14.55%, 8.03%, 2.32%, and 5.17% relative to
flooding irrigation, border irrigation, furrow irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and micro- sprinkler irrigation, respectively [15].
Among the establishment methods, direct seeding proves to be the most effective for rice
cultivation under drip irrigation, especially when using a medium-duration variety. The
square planting method with 20 x 20 cm spacing is identified as the most suitable approach
for drip-irrigated rice cultivation. Specifically, employing direct seeding with a medium- duration variety and utilizing crop geometry of square planting with 20x20 cm spacing
emerges as the optimal strategy, yielding higher results in terms of both productivity (6080
kg/ha) and net income (Rs. 64059/ha), with BCR of 2.37, and achieving enhanced water use
efficiency at 6.61 kg. ha-mm-1 in drip method of irrigation adopted paddy cultivation during
the Rabi season.
The most effective approach for rice cultivation under drip irrigation during the Rabi season
is to employ direct seeding using a medium-duration variety, implementing a spacing of
20x20 cm in a raised bed (square method). It also stands out as the best alternative method
for rice production, particularly when combined with recommended agronomic practices.
This strategy is designed to enhance both crop and water productivity under limited water
availability.
Fig I: Effect of treatment combinations on net income (Rs. /ha)
Fig II: Effect of treatment combinations on water productivity (Rs. /m3)
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
8.08
8.31
7.92
9.37
10.57
7.69
7.45
7.92
8.26
5.32
6.59
6.61
7.55
8.91
6.05
7.45
8.22
6.68
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Water
productivity(Rs./m3
)
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397
Kannan, S. V., Ravikumar, V., & Sangeetha, J. V. V. (2024). Methods of Establishment and Crop Geometry on Rice (Oryza Sativa) Productivity Under
Drip Irrigation. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(3). 389-397.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.123.17111
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I acknowledge the support rendered by the Dean, AEC&RI(TNAU), Kumulur for conducting
the research at Central Farm.
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