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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 13, No. 02
Publication Date: April 25, 2025
DOI:10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on
Conduct Disorders among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders among
Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii
County, Kenya
Kiarie O. Michel
Department of Educational Psychology and Special Needs,
School of Education, Pwani University Kenya, Kenya
Alice A. Anika
Department of Educational Psychology and Special Needs,
School of Education, Pwani University Kenya, Kenya
Mwangi M. Sarah
Department of Educational Psychology and Special Needs,
School of Education, Pwani University Kenya, Kenya
Edward Lambert
School of Social and Human Studies, Atlantic International University,
Pioneer Plaza, 900 Fort Street Mall 905, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
Rene T. Level
School of Social and Human Studies, Atlantic International University,
Pioneer Plaza, 900 Fort Street Mall 905, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
Mohammad Shahidul Islam
School of Science and Engineering, Atlantic International University,
Pioneer Plaza, 900 Fort Street Mall 905, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
ABSTRACT
Parental absence which is termed parental deprivation associated negatively with
the social and mental development and growth of children which has short-term
and long-term effects on the mental conditions of children (Mao, 2020) [31]. The
current study aimed to determine parental deprivation's influence on conduct
disorder among children in public primary schools in Masaba South, Kisii, Kenya.
The research employed a correlation and cross-section study design approach,
combining qualitative interviews and focus group discussions. A sample of 324
participated in the study. The results were Parental living status significantly
influenced anxious or depressed scores among children. Children whose parents
lived together exhibited a significant decrease of 4.7 units in anxious/depressed
scores (β = -4.7, 95% CI [-5.2, -4.2], p < .001) while Children with separated parents
showed a significant increase of 2.9 units in these scores (β = 2.9, 95% CI [2.2, 3.6],
p < .001). The study revealed a clear link between parental deprivation and conduct
disorders. The study demonstrated the need for comprehensive interventions
addressing parental deprivation's material and emotional aspects.
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Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders
among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
Recommendations include strengthening social safety nets, enhancing educational
resources, promoting positive parenting practices, and addressing economic
inequalities. Future research should explore the long-term effects of parental
deprivation, the specific mechanisms of its impact on children, and the cultural
factors influencing these dynamics.
Keywords: Parental deprivation, conduct disorder, correlation, cross-section, economic
inequalities
INTRODUCTION
Parental deprivation affects children psychologically and they are likely to experience adverse
situations such as abuse and neglect (Gifford & Choi, 2015) [22]. The well-being of a child
involves development in multiple domains including physical, educational, health,
psychological, and emotional which not only promotes the lives of children in the aspect of
physical needs but also educational attainment, health, psychological, and emotional
development ( UNICEF, 2015; Minujin, Milliano & Plavgo, 2017) [15, 33]. Children who grow
up in economic and parental deprivation always display conduct problems and tend to come
from families with low income (Sosu and Schmidt, 2017) [42]. Additionally, children who
experience such deprivation are at a higher risk of developing behavioral and emotional issues.
They may exhibit signs of aggression, anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal. The lack of
emotional support can lead to low self-esteem and difficulties in forming healthy relationships
in the future.
Children who are deprived of love, care, and belonging may develop conduct disorders which
can jeopardize the rights of others and violate societal laws and norms (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013) [4]. Such children find themselves in conflict with the laws and get engaged
in drugs, deception, violence, property damage, and hostility toward other people (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013)[4].
Globally, longitudinal studies show that parental deprivation has significant effects on children.
A study done from a Mexican household survey out that most of the emotional problems and
behavioral cases emerged in children due to parental absence (Mao, 2020) [31]. According to
the studies done in India, children from deprived families experience depression and anxiety
as compared to children from non-deprived families and their self-esteem is lower than
children from non-deprived families ( Mansharamani, 2018; Omkarappa & Rentala, 2019) [30,
37]. Child deprivation is the most sensitive type of maltreatment in the United Kingdom. Thirty
percent (30%) of children have at least one guardian who is addicted to alcohol and 12% of
parents abuse their children physically, emotionally and are exposed to domestic violence
(Omkarappa & Rentala, 2019) [37].
According to the Kenya National Bureau of Standards (KNBS, 2019) [26], 16.4 million poor
people are living in Kenya, and the poverty rate is one of the main reasons for parental
deprivation which affects children (Byegon, 2022) [10]. In Kenya, based on the latest budget on
household survey Kenya National Bureau of Standard (KNBS) [26] the rate of poor people was
36.1% in 2015/16, equivalent to 16.4 million poor people (KNBS, 2019) [26], the rate of
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 13, Issue 02, April-2025
poverty is the one of the main reason of deprivation, thus affecting the wellbeing children
(Byegon, 2022) [10].
In Masaba South Sub-County in Kisii County, there is a lack of adequate parental care and
broken homes which has led to poor relationships between parents and children and low
parental monitoring which has led to the development of conduct disorders in children
(Obwocha, 2018) [36]. Children aged 6-15 years show signs of conduct disorder and anti-social
behaviors due to; 39% lack of parental care, 11% broken homes, 14% media influence, 13%
peer influence, and about 20% lack of counselor in schools, and out of this nearly a third
dropped out of school between 2017 and 2018 (Obwocha, 2018) [36].
It has been discovered that successful children come home background characterized by
positive and healthy relationships among members. Parents are responsible for the affection,
discipline, and training given to children which develops associated emotions and a range of
behaviors in children. Some parents distance themselves from children results in poor
adjustment and individual character failure due to parental deprivation, which has devastating
impacts and is the main concern in children’s conduct disorder.
Parental Deprivation and Mental Health Among Children
Parental deprivation and mental health are connected issues. The parental care and role of
parents influence the parent-child relationship in the development of the personality of a child.
This implies that if the child has both responsible parents, the relationship becomes reliant on
the child (Ghosh, 2016) [21]. According to Kendler (2002)[25], several studies indicate that the
association between mental disorder and parental deprivation might be a result of parental loss
or death of parents which contributes to other factors, such as family discord or genetic liability.
Most studies often mention the importance of high levels of caregiver warmth which lowers
mental health problems protecting children from negative outcomes from the death of their
parents (Lin, 2004; Luecken, 2009 & Haine, 2006) [29]. Children with dead parents or
caregivers experience a high level of behavioral and emotional symptoms often known as a
nonspecific disturbance (Dowdney, 2002) [17]. According to research done by Ghosh (2016)
[21], children with good conduct disorder were higher in non-deprived families 87.5% than in
children from deprived families 20%.
The Impacts of Parental Deprivation on Children and Well-being
Parental deprivation has been associated with many negative child outcomes, such as
psychological, educational, and conduct outcomes. The impact of a father's absence is strong in
several current approaches (Amato and Carlson, 2014) [2]. Concerning the issue of whether
there is a causal effect of parental deprivation on children, some literature reviews have tried
to focus on underlying pathways of relationship between parents and children (Leturcq &
Panico, 2019)[28]. Pathways considered in underlying the relationship between parental
deprivation and child well-being concentrate on the resources available to families affected
(Marion and Panico, 2019) [32]. The first resource always explored is money: This pathway
indicates that at least some of the negative impacts of parental deprivation on children are
because of deterioration in financial well-being (Schoon, 2010) [40]. The second resource is the
quality and quantity of the parenting received by the child. When parents deprive their
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Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders
among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
children, the quality and quantity of parenting is affected and decreases which results in family
stress and conflict (Amato, 2005) [3].
Loss of attachment in the form of parental separation and divorce is a rational problem affecting
families. When children are affected by the loss of attachment they are likely to experience
psychological distress and it becomes difficult for them to maintain relationships in adulthood
due to stress and anxiety (Bartley, Cable, Lacey, Pikhart, and Stafford, 2014) [8].
Children increasingly parental deprivation during childhood (Leturcq & Panico, 2019) [32]. In
2010, United Kingdom children under the age of 17 were not staying together with their birth
parents (DWP, 2013) [18]. However, income has been increasingly a reason for parental
deprivation, and this causes separation when parents fail to prioritize resources for their
children (Guio, 2009) [23].
According to Watson (2019) [45], the social situation of an individual is closely tied to their life
opportunities, with well-being encompassing a broad spectrum of opportunities that children
encounter as they grow to adulthood. Opportunities are defined as the level to which people
can obtain essential social resources such as food, housing, clothing, medical care, and
education. This reduces negative feelings promotes positive feelings, and reduces internalizing
(Alegre, Benson & Escoda, 2014) [1]. Deprived families experience problems such as
frustrations, domestic violence, poor health, and services which result in loss of hope especially
in children (Dosunmu & Sowunmi, 2013) [16].
Children with poor parental care or from deprived families have poor environments and low
resources, and this is a high-risk factor for academic achievement children are at higher risk of
retention in their grades and even dropping out of school than other children (Dosunmu &
Sowunmi, 2013) [16].Therefore, parental involvement is the key factor in children’s academic
success and educational outcomes (Dosunmu & Sowunmi, 2013) [16]. The use of drug abuse by
parents has a deleterious effect on the health and well-being of the child which directly affects
educational success (Easterbrook, 2021) [19]. Children from non-dysfunctional families
experience parental discord due to deprivation, separation, and divorce which affects
visitation, child support, and childrearing, in addition to the effects of deprivation, the level of
child’s perception and understanding depends on the level of the parent-child relationship
(Springer, 2020) [43]. The adverse effects of parental deprivation on children's psychological
well-being were associated with poor self-esteem, lower levels of academic performance, lack
of social skills, material disadvantage, and more physical health problems (Seijo, 2016) [41].
According to Obwocha (2018) [36], poor parental discipline (58.9%) was the key variable
contributor to anti-social conduct that leads to aggressiveness among children, 10.3% of
conduct disorder is attributed to family environment, 6.5% Family conflicts between parents
and parents account for 12.1% of the issues, while family conflicts between parents and
children make up 6.5%. Additionally, 5.6% of the cases involve a family history of conduct
disorder, and parental attitudes contribute to the remaining percentage.
The Association Between Lack of Parental Support and Conduct Disorders in Children
According to Lacey (2014) [8], parental deprivation which comes as a result of separation and
divorce not only harms children psychologically but also endangers material support which
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affects the psychological well-being of children. The lack of essential material support such as
basic needs and money mainly leads to poor living standards for members of the family.
Therefore, the psychological well-being of children is affected since they feel rejected and are
on their own.
Children with no parental support struggle a lot in terms of psychological well-being. They
perform poorly on tests measuring psychological well-being such as optimism, self-concept,
problem-solving, self-confidence, self-control, concentration, and emotional stability. The
psychological effects have also hampered their interest in meeting their educational needs.
(Gahler and Palmtag, 2015) [20].
The psychological well-being of children is affected by many factors such as stunted emotions,
minimum emotional security, minimum parent-child time, and psychological development
which leads to poor emotional distress, physical health, religious convictions, attitudes towards
sex, and academic stimulation (Anderson, 2014) [5]. The long-term psychological effects are
dramatic mood swings, persistent restlessness, and hyperactivity which are influenced by
depression, and later in life, they develop different types of depression that interfere with their
social well-being (Carrier and Utz, 2012) [11]. Parental deprivation is the main risk factor for
children’s health problems. Depression emotions, headaches, and stomach complaints are signs
of being unwell which a health issue is. Thus, their well-being conditions are unhealthy
(D’Onforio and Emery, 2019) [15]. Children from deprived families frequently complain of
headaches which are connected to high levels of sadness (Bojan, 2020) [9].
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
In this study, both the cross-sectional and correlation study designs were applied. With current
data, correlational study designs help anticipate events and identify correlations and
prevalence (Cohen, Manion, and Morrison, 2011) [14]. Through the use of a cross-sectional
study design, data from children was obtained for this research, which assisted in determining
the prevalence rate of parental deprivation indicators (Worthman, Tomlinson, & Rotheram- Borus, (2016) [46].
Target Population
1714 children in grades 4 and 5 were the subject of the study. Since grade 4 and 5 children are
transitioning from lower to upper grades and are primarily impacted by parental deprivation,
this study focused exclusively on these children, who are between the ages of 10 and 12.
Furthermore, children who are moving up to upper primary school are more negatively
impacted by parental neglect (Ngina, 2018) [35].
Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
Children are the target population. To ensure that all participating schools achieve higher
academic standards and behave appropriately, the researcher employed a purposive sampling
technique to select schools. Simple random sampling was utilized to select children. 10% to
30% of the entire population is deemed sufficient for the research when there are fewer than
10,000 people, according to Mugenda & Mugenda, (2003) [34]. Consequently, 323children
make up the sample size.
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Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders
among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
Table 1: Sample Size
Respondents Population size (N) Sample size (n) %
Children 1714 323 18.8
Source: DEO office Masaba South Sub-County (2024)
The number of students in grades 4 and 5 in each school was equal during sampling, based on
the sample size in the school, and Slovin's formula (Zach, 2023) [47] was utilized to determine
the sample size of students from each primary school.
Slovin’s Formula
n= N / (1+Ne2)
Where
• n= Sample size
• N=Target population
• E=Acceptable margin of error at 5% (STD value of 0.05)
Data Collection Instruments
The study concentrated on the data collection tools that were employed, including
questionnaires, interview schedules, and observation checklists. Through observations and
interviews, information was gathered on the indications of parental deprivation related to basic
needs, character development, emotional attachment, and intellectual support.
Piloting the Research Instruments
A pilot study was carried out to guarantee that research instruments are well-defined and put
together. One elementary school that is not included in the main study's sample took the pre- tests for the instruments. Twenty students and three class teachers from the piloted school
participated as respondents. The primary study's instrumentation was enhanced based on the
pilot study's findings. Piloting is a small, preliminary inquiry done to create and test measures
and processes to be utilized in the major study, as indicated by (Arain, Campbell, M., Cooper, C.,
& Lancaster, 2010) [6].
Validity of Research Instruments
The instrument's validity lies in its capacity to measure what it was intended to measure.
Through the use of pilot testing and precise forecasting of study objectives, content assessment
and validity were attained (Klassen & Yoogalingam, 2008) [27]. By applying content validity
throughout the pilot study, the interview schedule and questionnaire used in this investigation
were verified. To guarantee content validity, the researcher consulted Special Needs Education
Experts as well as Pwani University's Department of Educational Psychology and Special Needs.
Reliability of the Research Instruments
Repeatedly collecting data from a random sample of the sample population with a reliable
instrument yields consistent conclusions (Orodho, 2013) [38]. As per Orodho (2013) [38], an
instrument can be considered reliable if its distinct measurement method provides consistent
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feedback for a considerable number of trials. To make sure there was no possibility of error,
the test-retest method was applied to comparable groups.
Data Analysis
To analyze the data collected for this study, STATA version 15 was utilized. Research revealed
that parental deprivation was common. The category data were shown in terms of frequency
and matching percentages. Continuous variables were given as medians and interquartile
ranges (IQR) due to their skewness, such as age and length of hospital stay. Bivariable and
multivariable analyses using generalized linear models (GLM) with Gaussian family and
identity connections were conducted in order to determine the prevalence rate of parental
deprivation indicators among children enrolled in public primary schools. All of the variables
from the bivariable model were included in the multivariable model. There were tables
showing the outcomes.
RESULTS
The univariable generalized linear model regression analysis explored the influence of
sociodemographic factors and parental deprivation on various conduct disorders in children,
including anxious or depressed behavior, aggressiveness, withdrawn behavior, and social
problems.
Parental living status significantly influences anxious or depressed scores among children.
Children whose parents lived together exhibited a significant decrease of 4.7 units in
anxious/depressed scores (β = -4.7, 95% CI [-5.2, -4.2], p < .001) (Table 5). Children with
separated parents showed a significant increase of 2.9 units in these scores (β = 2.9, 95% CI
[2.2, 3.6], p < .001). Each additional sibling was associated with a small yet significant increase
of 0.3 units in anxious or depressed scores (β = 0.3, 95% CI [0, 0.5], p = .019).
Parental deprivation factors such as problems providing clothing were associated with an
increase of 2.1 units (β = 2.1, 95% CI [0.5, 3.7], p = .012), safety was associated with an increase
of 1.2 units (β = 1.2, 95% CI [0.4, 1.9], p = .002), and shelter was associated with an increase of
1.7 units (β = 1.7, 95% CI [0.9, 2.4], p < .001) in anxious or depressed scores. Spending quality
time with parents was associated with a decrease of 2.0 units (β = -2.0, 95% CI [-3.1, -1.0], p <
.001), effective parental discipline was associated with a decrease of 1.7 units (β = -1.7, 95% CI
[-2.6, -0.7], p = .001), feeling loved was associated with a decrease of 2.4 units (β = -2.4, 95% CI
[-3.1, -1.8], p < .001), and having set rules at home was associated with a decrease of 1.6 units
(β = -1.6, 95% CI [-2.6, -0.6], p = .002) in anxious or depressed scores.
Similarly, parental deprivation had a significant influence on aggressiveness scores. Problems
providing clothing were associated with an increase of 0.6 units (β = 0.6, 95% CI [0.4, 0.9], p <
.001), and problems providing food were associated with an increase of 2.5 units (β = 2.5, 95%
CI [2.0, 3.0], p < .001). Problems providing education were associated with an increase of 0.2
units (β = 0.2, 95% CI [0.1, 0.4], p = .008) in aggressiveness scores. In contrast, spending quality
time with parents was associated with a decrease of 0.3 units (β = -0.3, 95% CI [-0.5, -0.1], p =
.006), and having set rules at home was associated with a decrease of 0.2 units (β = -0.2, 95%
CI [-0.4, 0], p = .012) in aggressiveness scores.
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Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders
among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
Feeling loved was significantly associated with a decrease of 0.4 units (β = -0.4, 95% CI [-0.7, -
0.1], p = .003) in withdrawn scores. However, problems providing shelter were associated with
an increase of 0.4 units (β = 0.4, 95% CI [0.1, 0.7], p = .021) in withdrawn scores.
Problems providing shelter were significantly associated with an increase of 0.5 units (β = 0.5,
95% CI [0.2, 0.8], p = .004) in social problems scores while, feeling loved was associated with a
decrease of 0.4 units (β = -0.4, 95% CI [-0.8, -0.1], p = .006) in social problems scores.
Table 2: Univariable generalized linear model regression analysis of the influence of
parental deprivation on conduct disorders among children
Predictors Conduct Disorders
Anxious/Depressed Aggressiveness Withdrawn Social Problems
Beta
Coefficient
zβ(95%CI)
P value Beta
Coefficient
β(95%CI)
P
value
Beta
Coefficient
β(95%CI)
P
value
Beta
Coefficient
β(95%CI)
P
value
Sociodemographic
Grade 0.2
(-0.6-0.9)
0.679 0.1
(-0.1-0.2)
0.388 -0.2
(-0.5-0.1)
0.281 -0.3
(-0.6-0.1)
0.124
Age in years -0.3
(-0.7-0.2)
0.269 -0.1
(-0.1-0)
0.197 -0.1
(-0.3-0)
0.123 -0.2
(-0.4-0)
0.135
Parents live
together
-4.7
(-5.2--4.2)
<0.001 -0.1
(-0.2-0.1)
0.397 -0.2
(-0.5-0.1)
0.145 -0.3
(-0.6-0.1)
0.108
Parents separated 2.9
(2.2-3.6)
<0.001 0
(-0.2-0.1)
0.497 0.2
(-0.1-0.5)
0.232 0.2
(-0.2-0.5)
0.32
Number of siblings 0.3
(0-0.5)
0.019 0(0-0) 0.723 -0.1(-0.2-0) 0.023 -0.1
(-0.2-0)
0.06
Parental Deprivation
Problem providing
clothing
2.1
(0.5-3.7)
0.012 0.6
(0.4-0.9)
<0.001 0.2
(-0.4-0.9)
0.519 0.2
(-0.5-1)
0.542
Problem providing
food
2
(-1.2-5.2)
0.221 2.5
(2-3)
<0.001 0.2
(-1.1-1.5)
0.752 0.2
(-1.2-1.7)
0.765
Problem providing
safety
1.2
(0.4-1.9)
0.002 0.1
(0-0.2)
0.163 0.2
(-0.1-0.5)
0.253 0.2
(-0.1-0.5)
0.265
Problem providing
shelter
1.7
(0.9-2.4)
<0.001 0
(-0.1-0.2)
0.467 0.4
(0.1-0.7)
0.021 0.5
(0.2-0.8)
0.004
Problem providing
education
0.6
(-0.5-1.6)
0.301 0.2(0.1-0.4) 0.008 0(-0.5-0.4) 0.85 0
(-0.5-0.4)
0.899
Quality time with
parents
-2
(-3.1--1)
<0.001 -0.3
(-0.5--0.1)
0.006 -0.2
(-0.7-0.2)
0.302 -0.2
(-0.7-0.2)
0.329
Discipline by
parents
-1.7
(-2.6--0.7)
0.001 0
(-0.1-0.2)
0.658 -0.2
(-0.6-0.1)
0.21 -0.3
(-0.7-0.2)
0.236
Feeling loved -2.4
(-3.1--1.8)
0 -0.1
(-0.2-0.1)
0.331 -0.4
(-0.7--0.1)
0.003 -0.4
(-0.8--0.1)
0.006
Set rules at home -1.6
(-2.6--0.6)
0.002 -0.2
(-0.4-0)
0.012 -0.2
(-0.7-0.2)
0.255 -0.3
(-0.7-0.2)
0.282
In the multivariable generalized linear model regression analysis (Table 4.5), parental living
status significantly influenced conduct disorder scores among children in the multivariable
generalized linear model regression analysis. On average, children whose parents lived
together had a 4.1 unit decrease in anxious or depressed scores compared to those whose
parents were separated (Adjusted β = -4.1, 95% CI [-4.6, -3.6], p < .001). Each additional sibling
was associated with a 0.1 unit increase in these scores (Aβ = 0.1, 95% CI [0, 0.3], p = .041).
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Michel, K. O., Anika, A. A., Sarah, M. M., Lambert, E., Level, R. T., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Influence of Parental Deprivation on Conduct Disorders
among Children from Public Primary Schools in Masaba South, Kisii County, Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(02). 124-137.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.1302.18355.
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