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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 13, No. 1

Publication Date: February 25, 2025

DOI:10.14738/aivp.131.18360.

Simbe, J. Y. & Agoi, L. M. (2025). Factors Influencing Poor Implementation of Community Led Total Sanitation in Kajiado County,

Kenya. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(1). 429-438.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Factors Influencing Poor Implementation of Community Led

Total Sanitation in Kajiado County, Kenya

Juliana Yunia Simbe

School of Social and Human Studies,

Atlantic International University, Pioneer Plaza,

900 Fort Street Mall 905, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA

Lusiola Musa Agoi

Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors influencing poor

implementation of CLTS in Magadi Ward, Kajiado County. Specifically, the study

wanted to identify the socio-cultural factors influencing the poor implementation

of CLTS, assess the accessibility of households to latrines, determine the latrine

coverage and find out the community’s attitude, practice and knowledge on

sanitation. A cross sectional descriptive study was adopted. Magadi was divided

into four strata, each stratum represented its villages. The first household head to

be interviewed was picked at random from the household register provided by the

village headmen. Systematic random sampling was used to determine the number

of villages and households to be interviewed. Data was collected by use of

questionnaire and observation checklists. This was done by face to face

interviewing of the respondents by trained CHVs. Qualitative data was processed

through manual cleaning of the questionnaires by counter checking for

completeness and then coded for easy entry. SPSS version 22.0 was used and

descriptive findings presented in form of tables and pie charts. The study results

revealed that 33% of the respondents had fully implemented CLTS while 67%

strongly disagreed that OD caused diarrheal diseases and eye infections. Socio- cultural factors such as the community’s attitudes, practices and knowledge, low- latrine coverage and inaccessibility of households to latrines are the results of

failure to proper implementation of CLTS. The study further revealed that 58% of

respondents were not educated and 40% thought that CLTS is not necessary

because of their nomadic lifestyle. The study findings concluded that the poor

implementation of CLTS was caused by low knowledge levels and negative attitudes

due to lack of education, poverty and nomadic lifestyle of the community.

Keywords: Sanitation, CLTS, ODF, Functional latrine, Kajiado.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of Community Led Total Sanitation was introduced and spearheaded by Kamal Kar

together with VERC, a partner of Water Aid Bangladesh, in 2000 in Mosmoil while assessing a

traditionally subsided sanitation program. He advocated change in institutional attitude and

the need to draw on intense local mobilization and waste situation and bring about collective

decision-making to stop open defecation. Community Led Total Sanitation was adopted by the

government of Kenya Ministry of Health in 2011, as a national sanitation strategy to achieve

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ODF in rural areas in Kenya, this was followed by successful piloting by sector players in 2007.

A roadmap dubbed ODF Rural Kenya 2013 was created and launched on 11th May 2011. The

roadmap involved dealing with organizations and devolves structures throughout Kenya to

reach all communities and guarantee that they are ODF. The National ODF Kenya 2020

Campaign Framework builds on the ODF Rural Kenya Roadmap 2013. It aims to eradicate open

defecation and declare 100% villages in Kenya ODF by 2030. An estimated 14% of Kenyans

practice open defecation. Kenya intends to achieve 100% ODF status by 2030 as per the SDG

number 6. The aim of SDG 6 is to ensure accessibility and sustainable administration of water

and sanitation for all. A fundamental objective of this goal is to accomplish access to adequate

and equitable hygiene for all and end OD, focusing on the necessities of women and girls in

vulnerable situations.

In Kajiado County there is no sanitation or sewerage administration provided by the national

or county government; and there is also chronic water shortage in the greater part of the year.

The region is classified as an ASAL area. Just 28% of the populace has access to sanitation.

Nonetheless, this coverage actually remains far beneath the national figure of 85.2% and

provincial figure of 78.4%. Because of this low household sanitation coverage, diarrhea and

worm infestation remains among the top five leading causes of morbidity in the area.

Percentage distribution of persons accessing toilets/latrines is exceptionally low at 26% in

rural areas and 47% in the urban areas. OD is still practiced in the county with just 25% ODF

certified villages hence the need to focus on the behavior change strategies. Poor sanitation has

contributed to contamination of open water sources in the region. Latrine coverage is around

80% in urban areas and 20% in rural areas. There has been no proof of progress in latrine

coverage from the earlier years. Evaluating the existing situation in the area is important to

enable attainment of relevant information in Community Led Total Sanitation status from a

local viewpoint and hence initiating the essential interventions.

PROBLEM DESCRIPTION

Kenya is one of the countries that did not accomplish the MDG for increasing access to water

and sanitation. Just 30% of Kenyans have access to improved sanitation, or at least, the use of

sanitation facilities that hygienically separate excreta from human contact. This suggests that

around 30 million Kenyans are at this point using dangerous sanitation methodologies like

simple kinds of latrines, and nearly 6 million are defecating in the open. This poses a challenge

in accomplishing Vision 2030 national targets to accomplish universal access to sanitation.

Although the figure is higher assuming shared facilities are included, it is the pace of increase

in access to improved sanitation that is worrying. Access to improved sanitation increased by

only 5% in the scope of 1990 and 2015 in rural and urban areas. In rural areas, people keep on

defecating in the open basically on account of open land, yet moreover it is seen as culturally

appropriate in certain regions. It is estimated that if the current trend of sanitation coverage is

maintained, it would take Kenya 200 years to accomplish universal sanitation coverage. The

constitution of Kenya makes access to some fundamental services including sanitation a basic

right for all, further building up the need to answer the common prevailing sanitation

emergency direly. The initial step is to acknowledge that we have an immense challenge that

calls for reconsidering of methodologies, and to have champions of change both at the local and

national levels.

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Simbe, J. Y. & Agoi, L. M. (2025). Factors Influencing Poor Implementation of Community Led Total Sanitation in Kajiado County, Kenya. European

Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(1). 429-438.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.131.18360

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1) To identify the socio-cultural factors influencing poor implementation of CLTS,

2) To assess the accessibility of households to latrines,

3) To find out the community’s attitude, practice and knowledge on sanitation,

4) To determine latrine coverage in Magadi Ward, Kajiado County.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted in Magadi Ward, Kajiado West sub-county, Kenya. Majority of the

population is nomadic pastoralists that practice open defecation due to poor implementation

of CLTS. The sub-county is an ASAL region that covers 2,640 Sq. KM. The population is 27,559

and 1021 households. (12) The four selected sub-locations included Oldoinyo-Onyokie, Magadi,

Olkiramatian and Entasopia sub-locations.

Study Population

The study population was the heads of households or their spouses in Magadi Ward. These are

adult men and women ages 18 – 64 years because this is the definition of an adult in the Kenyan

constitution.

Study Design

A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted to collect data for a period of one month.

Sample Size Determination

The minimum sample size was determined using Fisher’s formulae;

n = Z

2 ×

pd

d

⁄ 2

Where n is the required sample size

Z = standard normal deviate set at 1.96 corresponding at 95% confidence interval

p = proportion of the target population estimated to have particular characteristics of interest

d = degree of accuracy desired set at 0.05

n = the sample size desired, sample size (>10,000)

The probability of getting people in the area not using latrines p = 0.50

q = 1 – 0.05

q = 0.5

d = minimum error

Z

2 = (1.96)2

n = (1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5) / (0.05)2 = (3.8416 ×0.25) / (0.0025)

= 0.9604 / 0.0025 = 385

n = 385 individuals.

This number was adjusted to 400 because of potential non-response.

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Sampling Procedure

Random sampling was used to determine the number of villages and households, and the

intervals from one household to another. A simple random sampling method was used to

determine the number of households to be interviewed. After simple sampling to determine the

first households, systematic random sampling was done to determine the second households

then dividing the number randomly picked by two which gave an interval of three.

Method of Data Collection

Data collection was done by use of questionnaires and observation checklists. This was done

by face to face interviewing of the respondents by trained CHVs. The questionnaires consisted

of open and close ended questions which were used to interview household heads. They were

written in English but the CHVs translated them to Maasai language for interview to ensure

accurate answers. The researcher employed seven knowledgeable CHVs who are fluent in both

English and Maasai languages to undertake the translations. The questions wee formulated

from the objectives of the study in plain language for easier understanding. The questionnaire

was designed in such a way as to help the researcher to gain in depth understanding,

interpretation, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions of different respondents on CLTS. Observation

checklists were used to observe environmental conditions and especially the sanitation around

the households for evidence of human excreta.

Method of Data Analysis

Data was first processed through manual cleaning of the questionnaires through counter

checking for correctness and completeness. The questionnaires were hen coded for easy entry.

Descriptive summary statistics in form of charts (cross-tabulations, pie and bar) are presented.

Chi-square tests of association were conducted to assess dependence relationships among

potential factors.

Verification Ethical Consideration

The major ethical issue considered in this study was confidentiality and privacy of the

respondents and participants involved in the study. This was done using codes instead of heir

names so as not to infringe on their rights. Participation in the study was made voluntary and

those who consented were considered. The participants of the study included household heads

sampled from the specific villages of Magadi Ward of Kajiado West sub-County who lived in the

study area for more than six months.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Table 1: Summary of demographic characteristics of study participants (n = 367)

Independent Variable Respondent Response Frequency(n) Percentage (%)

Age Above 18 years 367 100

Gender Male 176 48

Female 190 52

Marital Status Single/Separated 80 22

Married 286 78

No. of family members Below 2 members 36 10

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safe water. Of concern is that 11 percent of the participants lacked any form of sanitary facility.

The 11% are representative of the Magadi population that has no coverage of latrines which

raises public health concern in regard to the spread of fecal-oral diseases in the region due to

rampant OD.

Accessibility of Households to Latrines

Table 4: Accessibility of households to latrines

Accessibility of latrines Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

Households with inside toilets 29 8

Households with outside toilets 92 25

Households that share latrines 205 56

Households with no inside/ outside latrines 40 11

Participants preferred personal trenches to pit latrines that could be easily constructed with

readily available materials as compared to flush toilets. Households prefer sharing sanitary

facilities as compared to constructing individualized latrines that would be costlier. 11 percent

of the population lack access to any form of latrine which inevitably contributes to OD practice

in the area.

Implementation of Community Led Total Sanitation

The figure below presents the number of respondents who had fully implemented the CLTS

program. The figure revealed that a majority 245 (67%) of the respondents had not fully

implemented the CLTS program in comparison to only 122 (33%) who had fully done so.

Figure 1: Implementation of CLTS among respondents

Functional Pit Latrine to Household Ratio

The figure below illustrates the ratio of functional pit latrine to the population in Magadi Ward.

Implementation of CLTS among

respondents

CLTS Implemented

CLTS Not-Implemented

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Simbe, J. Y. & Agoi, L. M. (2025). Factors Influencing Poor Implementation of Community Led Total Sanitation in Kajiado County, Kenya. European

Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 13(1). 429-438.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.131.18360

the government were available to aid in the promotion of sanitation coverage and no

government subsidies are put in place despite the MPHS objective to raise latrine coverage by

10% by the end of every financial year.

RECOMMENDATIONS

These are based on the researcher’s and respondents’ ideas to resolve the OD shame; Health

education and promotion should be intensified during the community dialogue days that are

held regularly. Discussions on health and sanitation matters are facilitated by PHOs, CHVs and

key community leaders to discuss ways to provide support and behavior change within the

community. These key leaders should be targeted as sanitation ambassadors to encourage the

community to accelerate the uptake and use of available sanitation facilities. The county

government should, NGOs and stakeholders should embark on awareness raising activities that

emphasize sanitation and also help households to invest in sanitation by creating programs and

projects that will alleviate poverty and increase family income such as introducing pre-paid

metering of all the communal water sources so that financial sustainability of community water

projects can be ensured. In order to address socio-cultural barriers caused by low latrine

coverage the government should focus on sanitation financing interventions by creating a

strong enabling environment through dedicating funding to sanitation in count budgets with

needed subsidies to ensure funds are allocated appropriately and sufficiently to cover complete

implementation of CLTS, including ensuring that PHOs and CHVs are able to conduct trainings,

facilitation for constructing more public latrines, monitoring and follow-up activities. Due to

high levels of illiteracy, effective community sensitization should be intensified by all

development partners using simple methods that the community understands like PHAST. The

county government should recruit more PHOs and CHVs to address gaps, scale up home visits

and actively involve community members in the CLTS programs in order to create a sense of

ownership towards their total sanitation. CLTS should be adopted as a government policy for

the purpose of policy formulation towards improving implementation rates. In order to

improve latrine coverage, partners and stakeholders should endeavor to work together and

support the MPHS, consolidate their gains and embed the approach in all the national

decentralizes systems to ensure its sustainable spread. The county government should make

all efforts to implement the roadmap that aims to make the county ODF by harmonizing

approaches between sectors such as health, water, education, urban planning and

development. Existing regulations, legislations and policies both at national and county levels

should be reviewed and multi-sectoral approach adopted that aims to improve sanitation in

rural areas. Further research is needed on the upscaling of CLTS implementation in the

community to address the gap between knowledge and practice because the low level of

education and its consequences strongly came out. Further studies should be carried out to

determine whether the implementation of CLTS has succeeded to improve sanitation standards

and reduced disease morbidity in the communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to gratefully express my appreciation to the County Government of Kajiado, department

of Public Health and Sanitation who made the study possible. I also recognize all the Public

Health staff and Community Health Volunteers who provided me with research assistance.

Special appreciation goes to my family for their financial, moral and spiritual support in the

course of my study.

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

ASAL: Arid and Sem Arid Land

CHV: Community Health Volunteer

MDG: Millennium Development Goal

MPHS: Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation

NGO: Non-Governmental Organization

OD: Open Defecation

ODF: Open Defecation Free

PHAST: Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation

PHO: Public Health Officer

SDG: Sustainable Development Goal

VERC: Village Educational Resource Centre

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