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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 8, No. 6
Publication Date: June 25, 2021
DOI:10.14738/assrj.86.10224. Ntim, E. K., Vanderpuye, I., Kpodeo, I, A., Assie, R. A., & Derkye, C. (2021). Expanded Core Curriculum and Academic Achievement
of Students with Visual Impairment. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 8(6). 345-365.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Expanded Core Curriculum and Academic Achievement of
Students with Visual Impairment
Edward Kofi Ntim
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast
Irene Vanderpuye
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast
Ivy Ama Kpodeo
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast
Rebecca Afrah Assie
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast
Charles Derkye
Department of Education and Psychology, University of Cape Coast
ABSTRACT
Every student (student with visual impairment or non-student with visual
impairment) is expected to leave the walls of any educational institution with a
strong grasp of knowledge, skills, and attitude to function successfully in life-after- school. In order to be successful, students with visual impairment must learn all the
nine components of the expanded core curriculum (ECC). The expanded core
curriculum empowers students with visual impairment to access their education
and make their own choices throughout life. Without specialised instruction in ECC,
students with vision loss may not be aware of the activities of their peers or acquire
other critical information about their surroundings (Ferrell, 2000). As students
with visual impairment learn the expanded core curriculum they build a strong
foundation for success in life today and tomorrow. The ECC must therefore, be
strategically and sequentially taught and integrated into all aspects of the education
of the student with visual impairment. Ninety-three students with visual
impairment at University of Cape Coast and University of Education, Winneba were
used for the study. Questionnaire and Multiple regression were used to collect and
analyse data respectively. Independent living skills emerged as the best predictor
of academic achievement of students with visual impairment.
Key words: Expanded Core Curriculum, Academic Achievement, Visual Impairment
INTRODUCTION
The expanded core curriculum (ECC) is used to define concepts and skills that are typically
learned incidentally by sighted students and that must be sequentially presented to students
with visual impairment because of lack of vision. It is also defined as the body of knowledge and
skills that is needed by students who are visually impaired due to their unique disability-
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 8, Issue 6, June-2021
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
specific needs (Ferrell, 2011). An ECC may include needs that result from the visual impairment
to enable the students with visual impairment to be involved and to make progress in the
general education curriculum. The presence of visual impairment requires that these skills be
thoroughly evaluated and systematically taught by teachers with specialised expertise. Without
specialised instruction in ECC, students with vision loss may not be aware of the activities of
their peers or acquire other critical information about their surroundings (Wolffe, Sacks & Corn,
2000). Proficiency in the ECC would help the student with visual impairment to demonstrate
competence within each deficit area and achieve positive adult outcomes. There are nine
components which all students with visual impairment are to acquire in order to make
progress. Lieberman, Byrne, Mattern, Watt, and Fernandez-Vivo (2010) explained further that
the ECC should be used as a framework for assessing students, planning individual goals and
providing instruction.
Assessment of each of the ECC areas is critical to measuring achievement and assuring
independence. Krawthol and Anderson (2001) intimated that instructional needs in the ECC
areas can be addressed using a variety of service delivery models. They stressed that
collaboration between professionals will ensure comprehensive services in the ECC delivery.
For example, professionals in the orientation and mobility (O&M), family members,
occupational therapists, physical therapists, speech-language pathologists, as well as classroom
teachers.
In the views of Silberman and Sacks (2007), the expanded core curriculum proposes that
instruction for students with visual impairment should include all the traditional areas of
academic instruction and instruction in areas that are directly affected by the individual’s visual
impairment. Since the original formulation of the expanded core curriculum, the curriculum has
evolved, resulting in the addition of the area of self-determination skills and the modification
of visual skills to the more comprehensive sensory efficiency skills area. The ECC consists of the
following nine areas: compensatory access, sensory efficiency, assistive technology, orientation
and mobility (O&M), independent living, social interaction, recreational and leisure, career
education and self-determination skills (Lewis & Allman, 2014).
Accessing the mandatory core curriculum is problematic for students with visual impairment.
In order to participate fully in the educational environment, student with visual impairment
require instruction in the expanded core curriculum (Hatlen, 1996; Koenig & Holbrook, 2000).
Also, it is essential for student with visual impairment develop competence in the expanded
core curriculum in order to reach their potential to live independently, have appropriate career
opportunities, live rewarding, dignifying and fulfilling lives. They are expected to possess the
skills of the expanded core curriculum so as to cope with all educational activities.
COMPENSATORY ACCESS SKILLS
Compensatory access refers to the skills that must be learned in order for students with visual
impairments have access to information, to be able to communicate and to be literate. Mastery
of compensatory access means that the student with visual impairment will have access to
learning in a manner equal to that of sighted peers. The compensatory access of the student
with visual impairment is significant (Guerette, 2014). Compensatory access skills are needed
by the student with visual impairment to access the regular curriculum presented in the regular
classroom, and also to enhance their ability to participate in the home and the community as
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Ntim, E. K., Vanderpuye, I., Kpodeo, I, A., Assie, R. A., & Derkye, C. (2021). Expanded Core Curriculum and Academic Achievement of Students with
Visual Impairment. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 8(6). 345-365.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.86.10224
well. Communication needs of students with visual impairment will vary, depending on the
degree of functional vision and the effects of additional disabilities. Citing Hatlen (1996), Johns
(2010) posited that students with visual impairment may communicate through braille, large
print, print with the use of optical aids, regular print, tactile books, a calendar system, recorded
materials, or combinations of these means.
Guerette (2014) also claimed that the prime themes of the compensatory access are access to
information, ability to communicate and literacy. Guerette stressed that the compensatory
access focuses on equipping students with visual impairment the capacity to compensate for
the unique needs and challenges created by the vision loss. Compensatory access addresses the
ability of students with visual impairment to develop concepts and to obtain and share
information with others. The overall development of compensatory access skills creates a firm
foundation for future growth, learning, and development. Ultimately, the compensatory access
skills enable students with visual impairment access the core curriculum which includes
sciences, mathematics, social studies among others. Students with visual impairment need to
be equipped with the skills necessary to access information and demonstrate mastery of
educational objectives. Compensatory access plays a crucial role in the education of the student
with visual impairment. Ultimately, well developed compensatory access skills allow students
with visual impairments to be independent, successful individuals and form the foundation for
active participation in school, work and life (Barclay, 2014; Barclay & Staples, 2012; Salvia,
Ysseldyke & Bolt, 2010).
SENSORY EFFICIENCY SKILLS
Corn and Erin (2010) described sensory efficiency as using multisensory integration to
complete a task as effectively and efficiently as possible using vision, hearing, and gustatory,
olfactory, tactual, the movement for concept development learning, and accessing the
environment. Sensory efficiency skills include learning how to use the optical devices, hearing
aids and augmentative communication devices. Learning how to integrate all remaining senses
to counter the impact of any missing or impaired senses is integral to sensory efficiency.
Efficiency and effective use of the non-visual senses is essential to the development of students
with visual impairment. Sensory efficiency refers to how well the student with visual
impairment use the remaining senses to receive, transmit and interpret information about
objects and events in the environment (Lohmeier, Blankenship & Hatlen, 2009). Langley (2004)
had indicated that the ability to understand and make use of what is seen, heard, touched,
smelled and tasted and to react appropriately to that information is the foundation for
development and learning. Smith (2014) had stated that the use of the senses and movement
for exploration are primary activities of learning at the stage of cognitive development. The
development of cognitive concepts and skills lay the foundation for understanding. All learning
including all the components of expanded core curriculum depends on the efficient and
effective use of the sensory system (Smith, 2014). He asserted that the sensory efficiency area
of the expanded core curriculum consists of visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory,
proprioceptive and vestibular functions.
Topor (2014) also explained that sensory efficiency skills include visual efficiency, auditory
learning, and the development of advanced tactile skills. These must be taught consciously to
children with any level of vision loss so that all sensory inputs can be used in the process of