Page 1 of 54

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 2

Publication Date: February 25, 2023

DOI:10.14738/assrj.102.12102. Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital

Region. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among

University Students in the National Capital Region

Miguel E. Mangada, PhD, RN, DBA

Faculty, Graduate School, Metro Manila College,

Novaliches, Quezon City, Philippines.

Faculty, College of Nursing,

Systems Plus College Foundation, Angeles City, Philippines

ABSTRACT

Utilizing the descriptive-comparative and descriptive-correlational research

designs, the researcher employed a questionnaire as the principal tool in gathering

data from 518 college students enrolled in the business program of the different

universities in the National Capital Region (NCR) during the school year 2014-2015

through a convenience sampling.The findings of the study revealed that majority of

the university college students belonged to the 20 years old group, were females,

born in the middle sibling order, had parents who reached college, and had an

average monthly income ranging from P30,000 and above, and whose families were

self-employed, and had previous entrepreneurial family experience. The study

indicated that the respondents had a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship.

The respondents were found to have high entrepreneurial intentions. For the push

factors that motivate respondents to become entrepreneurs, the respondents were

much affected by the different push factors, while the pull factors were not very

important to them. The study also found that the exogenous factors hindering the

respondents’ intention of becoming entrepreneurs will be serious problem to the

respondents if they enter the world of entrepreneurship and these will bother them

a lot especially upon starting a business, and so do the endogenous factors.

Furthermore, the study found the following: a) that there was a significant

difference between gender and entrepreneurial attitudes as manifested by the

pvalue of 0.000 which is less than 0.05 or 5%; b) that there was a significant

relationship between the entrepreneurial attitudes and intention of the

respondents as manifested by the p-value which is -0.169 and verbally interpreted

as very low correlation and with the p-value = 0.000 which is less than 0.05 or 5%,

thus, led the researcher to reject the null hypothesis (Ho); c) that there was no

significant relationship between entrepreneurial intentions and motivational

factors as manifested by the p-value of 0.505 and 0.611 which were higher than 0.05

or 5 percent; d) that in terms of pull factors, the entrepreneurial intentions do not

affect the motivational factors or the other way around; e) that the push factors or

the motivational factors do not affect the entrepreneurial intentions of the

respondents. This means that even if how good are the entrepreneurial intentions,

there is a possibility that motivational factors will not be good and vice versa; f) in

terms of exogenous factors, the entrepreneurial intention and hindering factors do

not significantly relate with one another as manifested by the r- value of 0.075 and

also p-value of 0.870 which is greater than 0.05 or 5 percent; and g) when

Page 2 of 54

22

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

endogenous factors were considered, a significant relationship exists between the

entrepreneurial intention and hindering factors.

INTRODUCTION

Davidsson, Lindmark & Olofsson (1995) and Fatoki (2010) cited in Ngek Neneh (2014)

revealed that as early as the 1970s and onward, many western countries have shared the same

experience with respect to large established organizations and businesses being unable to

create a net increase in employment which has resulted in permanent high levels of

unemployment Although the issue of youth unemployment has been recognized and

acknowledged as a universal phenomenon, the youth are beset with problems of high rate of

unemployment and underemployment, and the young Filipinos are not an exception to this

phenomenon.

A survey by the Philippine Statistics Office in 2015 indicated that the unemployment rate in the

Philippines was 6.5 percent in July 2015, down from 6.7 percent a year earlier but increased

to 6.4% as reported in April 2015. But these data excluded the Eastern Visayas region so the

nationwide jobless numbers may be even significantly higher. Among the unemployed persons,

62.6 percent were males. The age groups 15 to 24 years comprised 50.4 percent while the age

groups 25-34 (or 29.5 percent). By educational attainment, 22.2 percent of the unemployed

were college graduates, 13.5 percent college undergraduates, and 33.2 percent were high

school graduates.

Meanwhile, the number of underemployed was 8, 129 in July 2015. More than 50% worked for

less than 40 hours a week and 38.3 percent worked in the agriculture sector, while 44.2 percent

were in the service sector. Those in the industry sector accounted for 17.6 percent.

However, critics have pointed out that the statistics are significantly flawed as the actual

unemployment rate surpasses the statistical data given by the government agency. Moreover,

the National Economic and Development

Authority (NEDA) on Reducing Poverty, Vulnerability and Risks by the World Bank (2013)

observed that although Philippine economy grew at 5 percent in 2012, the overall poverty rate,

which is close to 40 percent has not declined but actually increased in some areas in the

country. While there is a high dependency and reliance on the Philippine government to absorb

and retain this growing number of unemployed people, there is not enough hiring to absorb all

youths seeking civil service employment. Consequently, the youths in the Philippines have

remained disproportionally affected and excluded from the mainstream economy.

Ibon (Manila Times, November 30, 2015) noted that the number of underemployed Filipinos

increased by 933,000 which stood at eight million in July 2015 from 7 million in the same period

in 2014. Ibon stressed that the underemployment rate that is equivalent to 20.3 % was higher

than the 18.8 percent in 2010. It said that there is at least 4.3 million unemployed based on the

real definition of unemployment under which the group continues to include individuals who

have stopped looking for jobs.

The high rate of unemployment among graduates in the Philippines has become a national

concern as the number of graduates with either degrees or diplomas from public and private

Page 3 of 54

23

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

higher educational institutions that join the job market increases each year. Also, while the

increase in enrolment at the public and private higher educational institutions has put more

graduates into the labor market, there has been no increase in the employment rate of these

graduates. As observed each year when companies in the Philippines set job fairs, there is a

tremendous increase in people seeking jobs exceeding the current demand for the services of

these companies but also the skills of new graduates do not match the needs of the labor market.

From the statistical data, the youth are the people mostly affected by the high unemployment

rate in the Philippines. The high unemployment rate among university graduates has also

resulted in high underemployment as there are too many graduates with fewer jobs. Morshidi,

Bakar, Lim and Mohammed (2004) in Ngek Neneh (2014), however, notes that academic

qualifications can no longer secure immediate employment upon graduation, thus requiring

graduates to demonstrate a positive attitude towards the changing job market.

The promotion of youth employment has been one of the priority areas of the Philippine

government. For this reason, a law, Republic Act 10679, otherwise known as the Youth

Entrepreneurship Act, has been enacted in Congress that would inculcate financial literacy in

Philippine schools. The law aims to promote the sustained development of young Filipinos

whose aptitude and skill in the field of finance and entrepreneurship shall be encouraged and

honed through education and specialized training programs.

Nonetheless, in spite of all the efforts being made, unemployment and under-employment have

remained persistently high among the young people. Just like in many countries, developed or

developing, entrepreneurship has been recognized as a solution to the high rate of

unemployment by the Philippine government. As Gree & Thurnik, 2003 cited in Fatoki, Olawale

Olufunso, 2010) said, entrepreneurship is a tool that drives the economy of a nation. Ekore and

Okekeocha (2012) alluded thatcareers in entrepreneurship will provide young graduates with

the opportunity to become financially independent while at the same time contributing to job

creation, innovation, and economic growth. Henley (2007) states that entrepreneurship is an

intentional activity, suggesting that there is a link between entrepreneurship and intention

given that entrepreneurial intentions are formed at least a year prior to the new venture

creation.

In the Philippines, there is a dearth of literature focusing on entrepreneurship specifically on

the intentions of graduating students, their attitude towards entrepreneurship, motivations

and perceived barriers to the formation of new businesses in order to remove or lower entry

barriers and improve business formation - a gap in the literature that needs to be addressed as

it will provide recommendations that will enhance university graduate entrepreneurship, thus

helping to reduce the high graduate unemployment in the Philippines.

Statement of the Problem

The aim of this paper was to assess the entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the

identified universities in the national capital region (NCR) of the Philippines. Specifically, this

study sought answers to the following questions:

1. How may the profile of the university students enrolled at the chosen universities be

described in terms of?

1.1 age

Page 4 of 54

24

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

1.2 gender

1.3 marital status

1.4 highest educational attainment of either parent

1.5 average monthly family income

1.6 sibling order

1.7 previous entrepreneurial experience

1.8 entrepreneurial family background?

2. What is the extent of attitude of the respondents toward entrepreneurship?

3. To what extent is the entrepreneurial intention of respondents?

4. How do the respondents characterize the identified motivating factors on their decision

to start-up a business?

4.1 push factors

4.2 4.2 pull factors

5. How do the respondents perceive the seriousness of the identified hindering factors in

their decision to start up a business?

5.1 exogenous factors

5.2 endogenous factors

6. Do attitudes of respondents significantly differ when grouped according to their profile?

7. Do entrepreneurial intentions of respondents differ when grouped according to their

profile?

8. Do attitudes significantly relate to entrepreneurial intention level of the respondent?

9. Do motivating factors significantly relate to entrepreneurial intentions of the

respondents?

10. Do hindering factors significantly relate to entrepreneurial intentions of the

respondents?

Hypotheses

From the aforementioned questions, the following hypotheses have been formulated and will

be tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. Attitudes of university students toward entrepreneurship do not significantly differ

when grouped according to profile.

2. Level of entrepreneurial intention of university students does not differ significantly

when grouped according to profile.

3. Attitudes of university students toward entrepreneurship do not

a. significantly relate to their level of entrepreneurial intentions. .

4. Motivations of university students toward entrepreneurship do

b. not significantly relate to their entrepreneurial intentions.

5. Obstacles faced by university students in entrepreneurship do not significantly

relate to their entrepreneurial intentions.

Scope and Limitations of The Study

This study mainly focused on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students, their

attitudes, motivating as well as hindering factors to their decision of starting up a business and

it also looked into the relationship of these factors to their intention of putting up a business as

identified in the problem statement.

Page 5 of 54

25

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

The eligibility criteria for this study were that students had to be bonafide enrollees of any

private university located within the national capital region (NCR) of the Philippines and who

were in their final year in the undergraduate business – related degree programs, which

included any of the following degree programs prescribed by the Commission on Higher

Education ( CHED): Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, Bachelor of Science in

Business Administration in any of the following majors: Marketing, Finance or

Entrepreneurship, Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship, and Bachelor of Science in

Accountancy provided that entrepreneurship course is incorporated in any of the above

curricula, regardless of their age, gender, marital status, birth order, average monthly family

income, highest educational attainment of either parent, previous entrepreneurial experience

and entrepreneurial family background. Private universities that offer any of the identified

business-related programs but with no entrepreneurship courses integrated in their business

or business –related degree programs are ineligible to participate in the study. Less than four- year collegiate programs in business offered by these universities were also excluded.

This study was conducted for the whole academic year 2014-2015.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Entrepreneurship

Literature sources have failed to come up with one specific definition which totally describes

entrepreneurship. In an attempt to elaborate on the concept of entrepreneurship, Sathiabama

(2010) nevertheless posited that entrepreneurship is an active, ongoing process of creating

wealth by individuals or groups of individuals. Further, Herrington, Kew, & Kew (2009) pointed

out that an entrepreneur is one who shifts economic resources out of an area of low

productivity into an area of higher productivity and greater yield, and who organizes, manages

and assumes the risk of a business enterprise.

Hisrich & Peters’ (2008) definition of entrepreneurship, however, emphasizes four domains of

being an entrepreneur. Foremost, entrepreneurship involves the creation of something new

with value to the entrepreneur and to the interested parties. The interested parties can be any

individual who is concerned with the new product or service. Secondly, entrepreneurship

requires the devotion of the necessary time and effort. Making a novice idea functional and

operational and bringing it to market is a process with which most entrepreneurs find it

difficult and challenging. Thirdly, entrepreneurship is the taking the necessary risks. The risks

involved in an entrepreneurial process may be of financial, psychological or social nature.

Lastly, the entrepreneur reaps monetary rewards which are frequently recognized as the

determining factor for his success. Nonetheless, most entrepreneurs regard autonomy and

personal gain/satisfaction as the most vital personal rewards.

The European Commission (2008), as cited from World Economic Forum (2009) broadly

defined entrepreneurship to mean an individual’s ability to turn ideas into action. This

encompasses creativity, innovation, and taking calculated risks, as well as the ability to plan

and manage projects in order to achieve goals. This supports everyone in day-to-day life at

home and in society; makes employees become more aware of their work and better able to

seize opportunities and challenges and provides a foundation for entrepreneurs establishing a

social or commercial activity.

Page 7 of 54

27

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Entrepreneurship in the Philippines

Like other Asian countries, the Philippines is dominated by micro - and medium-sized

enterprises (MSMEs). MSMEs comprise 99.6 percent of total firms in the Philippines as of 2009

(Department of Trade and Industry, 2012). They provide 61 percent of the country’s

employment, 35.7 percent of value-added, and 60 percent of all exporters. MSMEs play a major

role in the economic development of the Philippines, particularly in the rural development and

decentralization of industries, creation of employment opportunities, equitable income

distribution, use of indigenous resources, creation of backward and forward linkages with

existing industries, and development of entrepreneurship in the country. Philippine MSMEs are

mostly engaged in wholesale and retail trade (49.6 percent). Only 14.4 percent are engaged in

manufacturing, 12.5 percent in hotels and restaurants, 6.1 percent in real estate activities, with

other sectors accounting for 11.6 percent).

The Philippine Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Report for 2006-2007 has documented the

profile of Filipino entrepreneurs (Madarang and Habito, 2007). The Report found that 39.4

percent of Filipinos are engaged in entrepreneurial activities. Fifty-two percent of these

entrepreneurs are engaged in early stage activity or in business between 3 to 3.5 years. Forty- eight percent are established businesses that have existed for more than 3.5 years. Businesses

have an average capital of P10, 000.00.

Also, the above report claimed that a typical Filipino entrepreneur is male, married, 25-44 years

old, high school graduate, and comes from the low income group. They are driven by necessity

and more than half are engaged in retail trade. There is very little application of technology and

minimal use of innovation. Seventy percent are engaged in businesses that do not generate

employment since the entrepreneur assumes all the functions of the business. Most of the

businesses employ less than four employees with only 20 employees or more.

Furthermore, Filipino entrepreneurship has very poor employment generation activity.

Business engagement is only done on a local basis and very few are engaged in exportation.

There is very little growth and long-term view of the business. However, Filipino entrepreneurs

see business opportunities and are highly confident that they have the knowledge and the skills

needed to do business. Yet, in what seems to be a contradictory attitude, they fear failure and

have very low tendency to take risks.

Finally, the report indicated that the pool of Filipino entrepreneurs is driven by previous work

experience (37 percent), exposure to family business (29 percent), and education and formal

training (17 percent). Filipinos entering entrepreneurial activity as a means to support the

financial needs of the family accounts for 54 percent of entrepreneurial motivation.

Entrepreneurial Education

Great attention has been given importance on entrepreneurship as evidenced in the number of

universities that include entrepreneurship courses in their program, as seen in the offerings of

formal degrees or a course in undergraduate and graduate programs. Although the question

“Can entrepreneurs be made, or are they born?” offered no definitive answer in the literature,

government, educational institutions, and businesses hope that entrepreneurs can indeed be

developed. The prospect of making and training entrepreneurs can be seen in the numerous

programs, academic training curricula, and support given to developing entrepreneurs

Page 8 of 54

28

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

espoused by these organizations. Entrepreneurship education becomes an important aspect in

its bid for economic growth and development of nations.

In the Philippines, entrepreneurship education was pioneered by De La Salle University when

it offered a Bachelor’s degree in entrepreneurship in 1983 and the Master of Science in

Entrepreneurship in 2003. In 1999, Asian Institute of Management (AIM) offered the Master’s

degree program in entrepreneurship (Master in Entrepreneurship) which ran for nine years (

1999-2008). The program was eventually spun-off from the Asian Management Institute in

2007 and is now under ACE Center for Entrepreneurship and Management Education, Inc., in

partnership with the Ateneo Graduate School of Business. In 2005, the Commission on Higher

Education ( CHED) issued CHED Memo Order ( CMO) No. 17 series of 2005, formally creating

the Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship . This memorandum from (CHED) mandated all

undergraduate programs offering entrepreneurship training and/or specialization to be called

Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship.

As cited by Garavan & O'Cinneide (1994) in the work of Ooi, Selvarajah & Meyer (2012), the

most commonly cited objectives of entrepreneurship education and training programs are:

• to acquire knowledge germane to entrepreneurship,

• to acquire skills in the use of techniques, in the analysis of business situations, and in the

synthesis of action plans,

• to identify and stimulate entrepreneurial drive, talent and skills,

• to undo the risk-adverse bias of many analytical techniques,

• to develop empathy and support for all unique aspects of entrepreneurship,

• to devise attitudes towards change; and

• to encourage new start-ups and other entrepreneurial ventures.

Moreover, according to Nabi and Holdeni (2011), entrepreneurship education aims to produce

graduate entrepreneurship that explains the interaction between the graduate as a product of

a higher education institution and their preparedness to pursue their career as an

entrepreneur. They said that a lot of graduates look for employment in government and private

institutions after they have gone through a course in entrepreneurship. However, to some, self- employment is not an issue in spite of the fact that the government considered the private

sector as the engine of growth.

Ediagbonya (2013) pointed out that entrepreneurship education is the kind of education given

to people with a view to developing entrepreneurship qualities properly followed up with

support services for smooth take off and successful running of business. Entrepreneurship

education seeks to provide student (especially those in tertiary schools) with the knowledge,

skills and motivation to encourage entrepreneurial studies in a variety of setting. Schools for

entrepreneurship are an important link between theoretical knowledge and practical

involvement in the market.

As cited by Ismail, Khalid, Othman, Abdul Rahman, Mohammed & Shekh (2009) in the works of

Zahariah Mohd Zain, Amalina Mohd Akram & Erlane Ghani (2011), entrepreneurial education

at tertiary level has also become as a vital component of many curricula in higher learning

institutions (HEIs). As potential businessmen can be seen among those who are presently

Page 9 of 54

29

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

undergoing their educational process at the universities, entrepreneurship education has been

regarded as one of the most effective ways to promote the transition of graduates into the

entrepreneurial world.

Mwasalwiba (2010) posited that entrepreneurship education is aimed at creating or increasing

entrepreneurial attitudes, spirit and culture among individuals and in the general community.

Entrepreneurship education is associated with opportunity recognition, venture creation and

growth.

Entrepreneurship education helps in imparting entrepreneurial skills among individuals. Thus,

entrepreneurship education is highly important to entrepreneurial intention, opportunity

recognition and new venture creation. With tailor-made programs that could fit in and increase

the entrepreneurial intention of undergraduates, graduates are more likely to become

entrepreneurs.

Ekpoh & Edet (2011) & Ooi, Selvarajah & Meyer (2011) refer to entrepreneurship education as

the scope of curricular lectures or courses that provides students with entrepreneurial

competencies, skills and knowledge in pursuing entrepreneurial career Scholars have

empirically evidenced that entrepreneurship education is an effective means of inspiring

students’ intention towards entrepreneurial career, turning into entrepreneurial actions and

increasing venturing rate of students.

As observed by Zhong & Wang (2012), entrepreneurship is confronted with uncertainties as

entrepreneurs keeps on trying new things and set challenging goals for themselves. Insufficient

business knowledge leads to risk-averse behavior and reduces entrepreneurial propensity. By

acquiring adequate business knowledge from entrepreneurship education, students’ interest

towards entrepreneurial career would grow and expand (Gelard & Saleh, 2010), because it has

fully prepared potential entrepreneurs in dealing complex decision-decision making skills

(Izquierdo & Buelens, 2010) and minimizes the perceptions of barriers and risk of

entrepreneurship (human capital, financial capital, discovering of opportunity, material

acquisition and technology adaptation), helps them to start enterprise better as they know the

entrepreneurial process and have foundation regarding business management knowledge (

Ahmed et. al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2012).

Dawey, Plewa & Struwig (2011) found that students fromdeveloping/merging economies were

more likely to envisage future careers as entrepreneurs and had positive outlook towards

entrepreneurship than their industrialized European counterparts. Giacomin, Janssen, Pruei,

Shinnar, Llopis & Toney (2011), on the other hand, examined if differences exist among

American, Asian and European students in terms of entrepreneurial intentions and

dispositions. The study results indicated that the entrepreneurial disposition and intentions

differ by country, and that students across countries were motivated and/or discouraged by

similar variables.

Entrepreneurial Attitudes

Trevelyan (2009); Sagiri & Appolloni (2009) cited in Lee Wei Ni, Lim Bao Ping, Lim Li Ying, Ng

Huei Sern & Wong Jia Lih (2012) indicated that behavior of a person solely depends upon

individual’s beliefs and attitudes, and those beliefs and attitudes play a very important role in

Page 10 of 54

30

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

determining individual’s action. Individual’s perceptions on ability to perform specific tasks

increase the likelihood of attitude converting into intention and subsequent behavior (Ajzen,

1991) in Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Lam ( 2007) .

Xavier, Kelly, Jacqui, Herrington & Vorderwulbecke (2013) cited in Zoi Giagtzi ( 2013) referred

to attitude as the extent to which people perceived that there are good opportunities for them

to start-up a business, or the degree on their attachment towards high status of entrepreneurs.

Individuals who get to know their referents have started a business will be more likely to see it

as legitimate.

Paço, Ferreira, Raposo, Rodrigues & Dinis (2011) found that the attitude toward the behavior

has direct and positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Hence, education and training

should focus on changing personal attitudes than providing technical knowledge about

business because the effects could be more significant to the process of business creation and

to overcome the perceived barriers to entrepreneurship. Krueger, Reilly & Carsrud (2000) in

Papzan, Afsharzade and Moradi (2013) tested the attitude-intentions of students, finding a

significant influence of the attitude toward the behavior on intention.

In a similar vein, the study findings among undergraduates by by Frazier & Niehm (2010)

stressed that positive attitude toward self-employment and the confidence of the ability to

create a new venture successfully appear to predict stronger levels of entrepreneurial

intention. Likewise, Elfving, Brännback & Carsrud (2011) revealed that if an individual holds

positive attitude toward selfemployment, he/she would consider entrepreneurship to be

aligned with his overall goals in life and sees an opportunity to perform an entrepreneurial

action, then most likely he will form an entrepreneurial intention.

Tam (2011) similarly gave evidence that entrepreneurship education and change in

entrepreneurial attitude showed significant relationship; taking active part in

entrepreneurship education had increased students’ attitude towards entrepreneurship

positively as entrepreneurship education enriched them with real-world skills and knowledge,

subsequently make them feel legitimate in pursuing entrepreneurial path, thus increasing their

entrepreneurial intention.

In a study undertaken by Segumpan & Abu Zahari (2012) which assessed the attitude of Omani

college students towards entrepreneurship and determined any significant difference in the

respondents’ attitude when grouped according to gender, sibling size, sibling order, mother’s

education, father’s education, and business exposure, the findings showed the respondents had

a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. There were, however, no significant differences

in the attitude towards entrepreneurship when the respondents were grouped according to

demographic characteristics.

Khan, Ahmed, Nawaz and Ramzan (2011) revealed that female students seemed to have less

entrepreneurial spirit, but the result showed that regardless of gender, there are equal

inclination towards entrepreneurial attitude. Attitude can be based on personality traits and

demographic characteristics; it can also be reshaped by education (Ahmed et. al. (2010).

Attitude towards entrepreneurship and self-efficacy are significant factors influencing

Page 14 of 54

34

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

desire to do something because of external rewards such as money and awards. Ashley Cotleur,

Kings and Solomon (2009) observed that the intrinsic motivators for entrepreneurs entail

being their own boss, being more in control of their own destiny and having ultimate

responsibility for the success of the business, while the extrinsic motivators are expected

monetary rewards reflected in salary and benefits.

With regard to pull and push factors, Eijdenberg & Masurel (2013) view pull factors as factors

that attract people to become self-employed (positive motivations), while push factors are

factors that force people to engage in various forms of entrepreneurship (negative

motivations).

As posited by Shamim (2011), pull factors are internally driven motives (such as need for being

their own boss; a need for autonomy; a need for achievement; a need for power; independence

and flexibility; wealth creation, opportunities in the market, to take advantage of, to provide job

security; my creative talent; be my own boss; to realize my dream; I enjoy taking risk; earn a

reasonable living enjoying a quality life). On the other hand, Kirkwood, 2010 and Still & Soutar,

2010) stated that push factors are externally driven motives (e.g. unemployment, poverty,

certainty of a client war, niche market, interest in a subject).

The factors contributory to the development of entrepreneurship, small entrepreneurship in

particular, can be broadly divided into ‘pull’ and ‘push’ elements (Turner, 2007; Epstein 2008

as cited in Ngek Neneh (2014). Pull factors include all those reasons that emphasize

entrepreneurship as positive and desirable alternative that pull the entrepreneurs to their

choice. The pull or ambitious factors motivate the entrepreneurs to initiate the ventures.

Needless to say that ambitions differ among individuals on the basis of their personal

characteristics. Therefore, ambitions which nourish the achievement motivation bring about

economic growth and development. The ambition factors do not always influence an individual

to undertake an activity. Sometimes other factors compel or push one to take initiative to start

a business. The factors which force people to start business enterprises are termed as push or

compelling factors. It is very difficult to draw a dividing line between entrepreneurs’ ambitions

and compulsions.

Islam (2012) conducted a study which endeavored to identify the reasons why the

entrepreneurs become motivated and are compelled to establish business enterprises. Among

400 small entrepreneurs from six districts of Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions who were

interviewed personally and over telephone using an interview schedule, their reasons for

becoming motivated were as follows: making money for family, self-employment, gaining

higher social status, use of personal knowledge and previous experience, family business

tradition, and less complexity but more profitability nature of business as the pull factors while

lack of higher formal education, curse of unemployment, dissatisfaction with previous

occupation, and family hardship or pressure as the push factors.

Asuamah, Eernest and Amuah (2013) assessed the entrepreneurial intentions among Sunyani

Polytechnic students, the factors that motivate and hinder their intention to become

entrepreneurs. One-hundred thirty-six students comprising of 94 males and 42 females

constituted the sample size of the study. Results indicated that there is high entrepreneurial

intention among the respondents. It was also revealed that there are important motivators for

Page 18 of 54

38

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

(Karimi et al., 2013 reported no significant relationship between demographic characteristics

and entrepreneurial intentions.

Basu & Virick (2010) as cited in Rashid et. al. (2012)) explored and evaluated the antecedents

of entrepreneurial intentions among 123 students at San Jose State University in United States

by building on Fishbein & Ajzen’s (1975) model revealed that prior exposure to

entrepreneurship education had a positive effect on students’ attitudes toward a career in

entrepreneurship and on perceived behavioral control or entrepreneurial self-efficacy. At the

same time, individuals’ prior exposure to entrepreneurship in practice, both direct and indirect

through their family background in business, was significantly linked to their attitudes, norms,

and perceived behavioral control regarding entrepreneurship. Having a self-employed father

was significantly related to the student’s positive attitudes, stronger norms, and greater self- efficacy with respect to entrepreneurship.

In a similar vein, the study by Teixeira (2010) revealed that less than 10 percent of Portuguese

higher education students had started a new venture, and that entrepreneurship intents were

somewhat important among these students. Around 35% of students surveyed regarded

having their own business as a more plausible future career.

According to Lüthje & Franke (2003) cited in Rashid et.al. (2012), attitude toward

entrepreneurship was the most important determinant of the intention to become self- employed and this attitude is influenced by the personality (i.e., risk-taking propensity and

internal locus of control) of the respondents. A positive personal attitude towards start-up is a

good starting point to stimulate entrepreneurial behavior, irrespective of student’s educational

background (Wu & Wu, 2010). Henderson and Robertson (2010) stated that the primary

reasons for young respondents to consider setting up their own businesses are “being one’s

own boss” and “to make money”.

Entrepreneurial Intentions and Sociodemographic Characteristics

According to McStay (2011), individuals’ past business experiences influence their decision- making business performance. Previous exposure to business, role models and networks are

important reasons why individuals become entrepreneurs. Peterman and Kennedy (2003 in

Uddin & Bose (2012) found a positive relationship between prior work experience in a small

business environment and attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Studies such as Kolvereid

(1996), Mazzarol et al. (1999) and Peterman & Kennedy (2003) in Susetyo and Sri Lestari

(2014) found a positive relationship between prior work experience in a small business

environment and attitudes toward entrepreneurship. Individuals with prior experience in

entrepreneurial activities have higher entrepreneurial intention compared to those with no

prior experience. Previous work experience helps to develop the skills and competencies

required to be an entrepreneur.

Taylor & Ahmed et al. (2010) pointed out that students with entrepreneurial experience,

whether self-experience, family experience or previous work experience are more inclined

towards entrepreneurial career.

Majumdar & Varadarajan (2012) conducted a study that aimed to examine whether there is a

difference in the entrepreneurial intentions among male and female students in the United Arab

Page 19 of 54

39

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Emirates (UAE). The study results showed that male and female students were equally strong

in terms of their propensity to become future entrepreneurs. Female respondents showed

higher risk-taking behavior than males, which was contradictory to past research findings that

have typically found females to be more conservative in risk-taking than males. The estimation

results showed that the propensity of future entrepreneurship does not depend on gender - it

depended on factors like creativity, motivation and awareness. This is a very important result

since the authors' sample does not follow the expected trend in the existing literature on gender

differences and entrepreneurship propensities where a wide gender gap has been found.

Challenges or Obstacles to Entrepreneurial Intentions

The dark side of operating and maintaining, in particular, a novel business, is critical to ensure

its survival. Substantial research has been attempted to identify and explain challenges or

obstacles encountered by entrepreneurs while starting up their new ventures. Evidences

suggest that it is a normal process for any novel entrepreneurs to face the challenges or

obstacles during the early stage of establishing new ventures. Therefore, entrepreneurs should

be ready in nature to take those challenges or obstacles with open mind.

A study by Moy et al. (2007) advocated that exogenous and endogenous factors are the main

challenges/obstacles faced when starting and sustaining new ventures among students. Among

them are high labor cost, high interest rate, strict government regulation (exogenous factors)

and lack of managerial experience, lack of technical knowledge, excessive risk (endogenous

factors).

These obstacles were found to be similar to that of the study by Zhuplev, et. al. (1998) as cited

in Ooi & Ahmad (2012) on Russian and American small business owners’ motivations and

obstacles which revealed high taxes, hatred for government regulations and start-up capital as

the main obstacles for both countries business owners.

In the same note, Fleming (1996) cited in Ooi & Ahmad (2012) in her longitudinal study on

Ireland university students’ attitudes towards business ownership process argued that several

obstacles that militate against entrepreneurship, such as lack of experience or lack of finance,

hinder the path towards university students preferred future career choice.

Nelkonsegal & Kwgynesty (2012) assessed the entrepreneurial intention among the students

of Sunyani Polytechnic, and also determine the motivators and obstacles to entrepreneurial

intentions. With a sample size of 136 comprising 94 males and 42 females selected by

convenient sampling technique, the results indicated that there were high entrepreneurial

intentions among the respondents. The study revealed that there are important motivators for

intention as well as obstacles to setting up ones firm. The findings indicated that gender, age,

religion affect responses given by respondents.

Ooi & Ahmad (2012) have examined factors that inhibit the starting of a business. The

researchers grouped the obstacles to entrepreneurial intention into exogenous factors (high

interest rate, high labor cost, strict government regulations, tight labor market, high taxes, lack

of government support and strong competition) and endogenous factors (stress, fear of failure,

Page 24 of 54

44

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Research Design

This study employed the descriptive-correlational and descriptive- comparative designs as it

attempts both to determine the relationship and the difference between and among variables

being studied.

STUDY LOCALE

This study was conducted in ten (10) private universities located in the national capital region

(NCR) of the Philippines that offer business-related collegiate programs. NCR has the biggest

concentration of Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) including the ones offering business- related programs. It houses political, socioeconomic and cultural activities in the country. It is

the seat of concentration of higher education institutions (HEIs) in the country.

Population and Sample of The Study

The target population of this study were the bonafide enrollees of the different private

universities located within the national capital region (NCR) of the Philippines that had

entrepreneurship course in any of the business and business-related degree programs they

offer. Personal survey conducted by the researcher showed that there are 23 private

universities in the NCR and all of these met the criteria in the selection of participating

universities. From this number, the researcher intended to get one-half of the population of

universities using a fishbowl technique, making the number of students who participated to

518. For the protection on the interest and rights of every university, coding was used to

conceal the institution’s identity.

Research Instrument

The questionnaire was adopted from various previous sources that are available in public

domain and was the principal tool in gathering the data. The questionnaire was organized into

five parts.

Part 1 included questions to collect socio-demographic characteristics of the college students

which included age, gender, marital status, average monthly family income, birth order, highest

educational attainment of either parent, prior entrepreneurial experience and entrepreneurial

family background.

Part 2 elicited information about the respondents’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship taken

from the study of Segumpan and Zahari (2012).The questionnaire consisted of 16 items scaled

as 1=strongly disagree; 2=disagree; 3= agree and 4=strongly agree. This questionnaire had a

relatively high Cronbach alpha (0. 857). The attitude was described as positive or negative

based on the scale provided in the discussion under Statistical Processing of Data.

Part 3 elicited responses pertaining to the respondents’ entrepreneurial intention level. Four- point Likert scale with 1 meaning strongly disagree, 2- disagree, 3- agree, and 4-strongly agree

was used to measure entrepreneurial intention level using a Modified Entrepreneurial

Questionnaire of Linan & Cheng (2009) consisting of 20 items.

Part 4 asked for the motivations of the respondents. To measure motivational factors for

entrepreneurship, an eighteen- item questionnaire was developed for the study. The answers

Page 25 of 54

45

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

provided in the questionnaire were extracted from the study findings of Yeboah, Kumi & Awuah

(2013); Venesaar, Kolbre & Piliste, 2006). The measuring instrument for these motivational

variables achieved high levels of reliability. Four-point Likert scale questions ranging from 4

extremely important, 3 very important, 2-mildly important, and 1- not important were used.

Part 5 elicited responses for the factors that hinder college graduates from not having made any

decision yet to start a firm. Obstacle variables which were taken from the study of Maas and

Herrington (2006) was measured using a fourpoint Likert scale with 1 indicating it is not a

problem, 2- quite a serious problem, 3- a serious problem, and 4 indicating it is a very serious

problem.

All of the research instruments that were used were downloaded from an open domain/public

domain which explicitly can be used as reference provided that the authors were properly

recognized and cited in the study, of which the researcher abided by the authors’ request. The

tools were used objectively for the attainment of the objectives of the study.

Reliability and Validation of The Instrument

The questionnaire was pretested using 10 students of the Our Lady of Fatima University in

Lagro, Quezon City, one of the campuses of the actual study sites, to find out the reliability (using

the Cronbach’s alpha correlation coefficient, which yielded a 0.72 correlation coefficient), and

validity of the questionnaire, and identify deficiencies in the design of questions prior to actual

survey even if the various questions used in this study were already tested by previous authors.

Expert validation was made before the conduct of the study.

Ethical Considerations

Permission from the University Research Ethics Committee and from the Dean of the Graduate

School was sought, then later from the presidents, deans, coordinators and lecturers of the

participating universities. Of vital importance is that the rights of respondents were taken into

consideration by the researcher. A cover letter of the questionnaire was made for the

participants to read and to voluntarily and willingly give their consent for their participation in

this research undertaking. During the conduct of the study, the respondents’ autonomy was

observed. They were given the freedom to answer the questions without any prejudice and to

erase all doubts about the confidentiality of the information they had provided for the research.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researcher sought approval to conduct the study with the recommending approval of the

president and deans of Colleges of Business Administration of the participating institutions.

Accomplished questionnaires were examined for their competencies.

Data for the study were collected from the students through self-designed and self- administered questionnaire in the selected university campuses covering the various variables

identified in the study. The purpose of the study was explained briefly and respondents were

made to agree to take part in the study. After this the researcher personally distributed the

questionnaire with the cooperation of the lecturers. Any inquiry from the respondents were

properly addressed and clarified. All the questionnaires were retrieved and scrutinized in

terms of their completeness. Incomplete questionnaires were not included.

Page 34 of 54

54

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

10. To invest personal savings 3.40 0.88 Not very important 4.5

11. Entrepreneurial family culture 1 3.13 0.99 Not very important 15

12. Follow the example of the one I

admire in business

3.10 0.98 Not very important 16

13. To increase my prestige and status 3.04 0.96 Not very important 17

14. I enjoy taking risk 3.03 0.94 Not very important 18

15. Good economic environment 3.17 0.91 Not very important 13

16. To use the skill learned in the

university

3.27 0.94 Not very important 11

17. Take advantage of my creative

talent

3.28 0.88 Not very important 10

18. Support for potential entrepreneur 3.31 0.86 Not very important 9

Grand mean 3.28 0.65 Not very important

Legend: 0.50-1.49=1 (Not important), 1.50-2.49 (Important), 2.50-3.49=3 (Not very important) 3.50-4.00=4 (Very

important)

Table 6 shows the exogenous factors hindering the respondents’ intention of becoming

entrepreneurs, and corruption got the highest weighted mean of 3.52 and verbally interpreted

as a very serious problem. The item strict government regulation got the lowest weighted mean

2.89 verbally interpreted as A serious problem.

In general, the overall grand mean was 3.23 and verbally interpreted as A serious problem

suggesting that these exogenous factors will be serious problem to the respondents if they enter

the world of entrepreneurship and these will bother them a lot especially upon starting a

business.

The results indicate that the factors prohibiting most university students from becoming self- employed are a combination of endogenous and exogenous factors. Fatoki (2010) also

identified factors such as the lack of funding and business skills including crime as obstacles to

graduate entrepreneurial intentions in South Africa. This can be supported by the fact that

crime in the South Africa has a very high crime level compared to Cameroon as indicated in

Harrendorf, Heiskanen & Malby (2010).

Noting bribery and corruption as one of the key obstacles to entrepreneurial intentions among

university students in the National capital Region is not surprising. In 2013, Transparency

International ranked the Philippines as the 113th out of 180 countries, with a corruption index

of only 25 percent, suggesting that the Philippine economy is predominantly dominated by

bribery and corruption. The persistent bribery and corruption in the Philippines has made

academic qualifications no longer a top prerequisite for the youth to secure immediate

employment upon graduation, given that sometimes, getting a job, promotion and

opportunities in the private sector and civil service, and passing government licensure

examinations , requires the individuals to bribe.

Page 35 of 54

55

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Consequently, many youths see the need to find job security, which most of them turn to be

highly dependent and reliant on the Philippine government or remain self-employed.

Akinboade and Kinfack (2012) pointed out that tax burdens discourage informal entrepreneurs

from registering their SMEs in the Philippines especially because of custom regulations and

corruption, where the business owners have to bribe the angry-looking tax officials that do

their rounds every quarter. This probably accounts for why many potential entrepreneurs and

university students see this factor as critical obstacles to starting their own businesses.

This suggest that obstacles to university students’ EI are a combination of exogenous and

endogenous factors, which is consistent with other studies by Ooi and Ahmad (2012)

Table 6 Exogenous Factors of Having Entrepreneurial Intention

Indicators Mean SD Qualitative Interpretation Rank

1. High taxes. 3.29 0.77 A serious problem 4

2. Strong competitors. 3.22 0.74 A serious problem 5

3. High labor cost. 3.13 0.76 A serious problem 7

4. Strict government regulation 2.89 0.90 A serious problem 10

5. Lack of government support 3.18 0.85 A serious problem 6

6. Corruption. 3.52 0.76 A very serious problem 1

7. Crime. 3.50 0.74 A very serious problem 2

8. Bribery 3.33 0.83 A serious problem 3

9. Difficulty in obtaining loans 3.10 0.82 A serious problem 9

10. Weak economic environment. 3.14 0.76 A serious problem 8

Grand Mean 3.23 0.56 A serious problem

Legend: 0.50-1.49=1 (Not serious problem), 1.50-2.49 (Quite a serious problem), 2.50-3.49=3 (A serious problem)

3.50-4.00=4 (A very serious problem)

Table 7 reflects the endogenous factors acting as hindrance to the respondents’ entrepreneurial

intentions, and the one which got the highest weighted mean was Lack of business skills

(financial, marketing) with a weighted mean of 3.l7 and verbally interpreted as “A serious

problem, and the endogenous factors which got the lowest weighted mean was Lack of support

from family or friend at 2.74, but still with the same verbal interpretation of A serious problem.

Overall, the endogenous factors got a verbal interpretation of “A serious problem as manifested

by the grand mean of 2.99. This implies that the respondents took all these endogenous factors

as a serious problem that they will encounter if they enter the entrepreneurial world.

Page 36 of 54

56

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Table 7 Endogenous Factors of Having Entrepreneurial Intention

Indicators Mean SD Qualitative Interpretation Rank

1. Lack of assets for collateral 3.11 0.83 A serious problem 4.5

2. Lack of savings. 3.16 0.81 A serious problem 2

3. Lack of business skills (financial

marketing).

3.17 0.91. A serious problem 1

4. lack of information about how to start a

business.

3.13 1.98 A serious problem 3

5. Lack of information about any

government agency that can assist in

funding a business

3.11 1.59 A serious problem 4.5

6. Fear of starting business due to risk

involved.

3.01 0.88 A serious problem 7

7. Future uncertainty 2.95 0.89 A serious problem 8

8. Fear of business failure 3.05 0.85 A serious problem 6

9. Lack of support from family or friend 2.74 0.97 A serious problem 13

10. Difficulty to find right partners 2.81 0.90 A serious problem 12

11. Difficulty to find right partners 2.89 0.87 A serious problem 9

12. No one to turn to for help 2.87 0.91 A serious problem 10

13. Lack of support from family or friend 2.86 0.97 A serious problem 11

Grand Mean 2.99 0.68 A serious problem

Young and Welsch (1993) identified that entrepreneurs face several obstacles, such as lack of

financial assistance, lack of information on various aspects of business, excessive taxation, and

high rate of inflation. On other hand, a study by Kozan et al., (2006) concurred that financing

difficulties hindered technological improvement and resource aggregation for many small

business owners in Turkey. A study by Moy et al (2007) advocated that exogenous and

endogenous factors are the main challenges/obstacles when starting and sustaining new

ventures among students. Among them are high labor cost, high interest rate, strict government

regulation (exogenous factors) and lack of managerial experience, lack of technical knowledge,

excessive risk (endogenous factors. These factors are found to be similar to that of the study by

Zhuplex, Konkov and Kiesner (1998) as cited in Ooi and Ahmad (2012) on Russian and

American small business owners’ motivations and obstacles which revealed high taxes, hatred

for government regulations and start-up capital as the main obstacles for both countries’

owners. In the same note, Fleming (1996) cited in Ooi and Ahmad (2012) in their longitudinal

study on Ireland university students attitudes towards business ownership process argued that

obstacles such as lack of experience, or finance hinder the path towards university students

preferred future career choice.

Page 37 of 54

57

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

The present study affirms that of Nelkonsegal and Kwgynesty’s findings (2012) which indicated

that demographic factors such as age, gender, religion affect students’ motivations for

entrepreneurial intentions. Ooi and Ahmad (2012) also confirmed the present study as they

found out that there are obstacles hindering entrepreneurial intentions among university

students.

Table 8 provides the differences in the respondents’ entrepreneurial attitudes according to

profile and the researcher found out that only if the respondents were grouped according to

their gender that the entrepreneurial attitudes were different as it is manifested by the p-value

of 0.000 which is less than 0.05 or 5 percent and that led the researcher to reject the null

hypothesis (Ho). Meaning, the females have different attitude with their male counterpart.

Males were more determined and stronger in decision-making than the female especially in

treating problems in their businesses. That is why majority of businesses were being managed

by males as being observed in our country.

The present study aligns with Segumpan & Abu Zahari’s study which says that entrepreneurial

attitude significantly differs when gender is taken into account.

However, the present study findings are not congruent with what Laspita, Chlosta, Klandt,

Scheiner, Brem & Voigt (2007 cited in Segumpan & Abu Zahari, 2012) found in their study that

German male students had higher entrepreneurial intentions than their female colleagues. The

other entrepreneurial attitudes don’t have significant difference if the respondents were

grouped according to the remaining demographic profile. This implies that even if they were

classified differently, they have the same attitudes.

Looking at the mean scores between male and female respondents, the males obtained a mean

of 52.93 while the mean for the females was 48.73. Seemingly, male respondents had a more

positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. However, when the t-test was used to determine if

this difference was significant or not, the p value of 0.174 showed that there was no statistically

significant difference between the mean scores of male and female respondents. In other words,

regardless of gender, attitude towards entrepreneurship would not vary significantly. This led

to the acceptance of the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference in the

attitude towards entrepreneurship of respondents when grouped according to gender.

The findings in this research are not congruent with what Laspita, Chlosta, Klandt, Scheiner,

Brem & Voigt (2007 cited in Segumpan & Abu Zahari (2012) found in their study that German

male students had higher entrepreneurial orientation than their female colleagues.

When the respondents were grouped by sibling order, the findings showed that those who were

second born obtained the highest mean (56.27), suggesting that they had the most favorable

view of entrepreneurship. Those who were the last among the siblings came second, with a

mean of 52.31. The first-born came next (mean= 50.28) followed by those in the middle ( mean

= 48.97), and then the “others” had the lowest mean of 48.37. When these differences in means

were analyzed using ANOVA, it was found that there were no statistically significant differences

(p = 0.711) in their mean scores, implying that regardless of sibling order, there would be no

statistically significant differences in attitude towards entrepreneurship; hence, the null

Page 41 of 54

61

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

be wrong. Hence, both affect each other in entrepreneurship. The findings of this study concur

with Paco et. al. (2011) which found that the attitude towards the behavior has direct and

positive effect on entrepreneurial intentions. Scholte et al’s study also supported the current

finding which demonstrated a very strong influence of attitude on intention where attitude is,

in fact a deterministic variable for intention. A study in Singapore, undertaken by Lena and

Wong ( 2004) in Segumpan & Abu Zahari ( 2012) also supports the present study found that

there is a moderate correlation between attitude towards entrepreneurship education and

founding of a business or business start-up among 11,660 students taking science, engineering,

information technology, and business and management programs in higher education

institutions.

Table 10 Relationship between Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intention

N r-value p-value Degree of Cor Decision Conclusion

518 -0.169 0.000 Very low correlation. Reject Ho There is a significant

relationship

Table 11 shows the relationship between entrepreneurial intentions and motivational factors

in terms of pull factors and push factors and the researcher found out that there was no

significant relationship as it was manifested by the p-value of 0.505 and 0.611 which were

higher than 0.05 or percent. This implies that in terms of pull factors, the entrepreneurial

intentions do not affect the motivational factors or the other way around. Likewise, in terms of

push factors, the motivational factors do not affect the entrepreneurial intentions of the

respondents. This means that even if how good are the entrepreneurial intentions, there is a

possibility that motivational factors will not be good and vice versa.

This finding does not parallel that Meslin (2002) who found that push and pull factors had a

significant relationship with the entrepreneurial intentions of Estonian and Finnish students.

The strong positive correlation between entrepreneurial intentions and pull factors in his study

indicates that the more an individual’s motivations are internally driven, the higher his/her

intention to start a business. This supports the view by Eijdenberg and Masurel (2013) who

established that pull factors are more vital than push factors in entrepreneurial motivation in

least developed country.

Push factors only play a minor role in motivating entrepreneurial intentions as highlighted by

Eijdenberg and Masurel (2013) and this can be seen in the low correlation coefficient of the

push factors. This is evident from the results of as even though most respondents indicated

push factors like unemployment and poverty to be a key factor pushing them to

entrepreneurship, the highest motivator was to realize their dream which is a pull factor.

However, it is important to recognize the fact that motivation is a more combined factor in

which both push and pull factors play a vital role in entrepreneurship (Eijdenberg & Masurel,

2013; Dawson and Henley, 2012). The significant relationship with EI shown by exogenous

and endogenous factors also indicate that EI is affected by a combination of both variables. This

is consistent with studies done by Kautonen, Tomikoshi & Kibler, 2011; Kabul & Mashi, 2012)

that have indicated that both endogenous and exogenous factors significantly affect

entrepreneurial intentions.

Page 42 of 54

62

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Table 11 Relationship between Entrepreneurial Intentions and Motivational Factors

N r-value p-value Degree of Cor Decision Conclusion

Pull Factor 518 -0.029

0.505

No Correlation Accept Ho There is NO significant

relationship

Push Factors 518 -0.022

0.611

No Correlation Accept Ho There is NO significant

relationship

Table 12 shows the relationship between entrepreneurial Intention and hindering factors and

the researcher found that in terms of exogenous factors, the entrepreneurial intention and

hindering factors do not significantly relate with one another as manifested by the r- value of

0.075 with a verbal interpretation as No Correlation and also p-value of 0.870 which is greater

than 0.05 or 5 percent. It implies that the hindering factors cannot affect the entrepreneurial

intentions and vice versa. Meaning, even if how good are the entrepreneurial intentions, it does

not affect the hindering factors.

But, in terms of endogenous factors, there was a significant relationship between the

entrepreneurial intention and hindering factors as manifested by the r-value of -0.124 and

verbally interpreted as Very Low Correlation and pvalue of 0.005 which is lower than 0.05 or 5

percent. This implies that the entrepreneurial intentions affect the hindering factors and vice

versa. Meaning, if the hindering factors are good, there will also be a good entrepreneurial

intention. If there is a bad intention there will also be bad hindering factors.

Onwards of having entrepreneurial intention as it was manifested by the p-value which were

greater than 0.05 or 5 percent.

Table 12 Relationship between Entrepreneurial Intention and Hindering Factors

N r-value p-value Degree of Cor Decision Conclusion

Exogenous 518 -0.075

0.870

No Correlation Accept Ho There is NO significant

relationship

Exogenous 518 -0.124

0.005

Very Low Reject Ho There is NO significant

relationship

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Based on the analyses of the data, the following summarize the findings of the study.

Majority of the 518 respondents were 20 years old and below (410 or 79.2 percent ), female (

380 as against 138 males ), single ( 497 or 95.9 percent) with majority of their parents having

reached college ( 67.95 percent, high wage earners who are getting an income as much as P30,

001.00 pesos ad above (about 33.4 percent), self-employed (65.3 percent). Middle-born sibling

(44.6 percent), with prior entrepreneurial experience.

The respondents showed positive signs of entrepreneurial attitudes probably because they are

enrolled in business and business-related programs in the university.

Page 43 of 54

63

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

The empirical data show that a large proportion of private university students in the national

capital region (NCR) have rather strong entrepreneurial intentions.

The respondents were much affected on the different push factors on becoming an

entrepreneur.

The pull factors that were stated in the study were not very important to them.

The exogenous factors identified in the study were considered a serious problem to the

respondents if they enter the world of entrepreneurship and these will bother them a lot

especially upon starting a business.

Overall, the endogenous factors were regarded by the respondents as a serious problem.

The study found that there was a significant difference in the respondents’ entrepreneurial

attitudes only in terms of gender as manifested by the p-value of 0.000 which is less than 0.05

or 5 percent and that led to the rejection of the null hypothesis stated in the study. The other

entrepreneurial attitudes did not have any significant difference when the respondents were

grouped according to the remaining demographic profile.

In the determination as to whether there is a significant relationship between entrepreneurial

attitudes and intentions of the respondents, there is a very low correlation.

The study found that there was no significant relationship between entrepreneurial intentions

and motivational factors as indicated in their p-value of 0.505 and 0.611 which were higher

than 0.05 or 5 percent implying that in terms of pull factors, the entrepreneurial intentions did

not affect the motivational factors or the other way around. Likewise, in terms of push factors,

the motivational factors did not affect the entrepreneurial intentions of the respondents.

In terms of exogenous factors, the entrepreneurial intention and hindering factors did not

significantly relate with one another as manifested by the r- value of 0.075 with a verbal

interpreted as No Correlation and also p-value of 0.870 which is greater than 0.05 or 5 percent

implying that the hindering factors cannot affect the entrepreneurial intentions and vice versa.

Again, this means that even if how good are the entrepreneurial intentions, it does not affect

the hindering factors. But, in terms of endogenous factors, there was a significant relationship

between the entrepreneurial intention and hindering factors as manifested by the r- value of -

0.124 and verbally interpreted as Very Low Correlation and p-value of 0.005 which is lower

than 0.05 or 5 percent, implying that the entrepreneurial intentions affect the hindering factors

and vice versa.

CONCLUSIONS

This exploratory study addresses the missing gap in current literature regarding

entrepreneurship. It is one of the first studies looking at entrepreneurial interest among

university students in the National Capital Region of the Philippines. The findings from this

study can be a starting point for future research and spur more research in this field. In terms

of theoretical contribution, this study has shown that the theory of planned behavior is very

useful, and it provides a theoretical framework toward understanding the factors influencing

students’ entrepreneurial intentions.

Page 44 of 54

64

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

This study showed that while university students in the National Capital Region of the

Philippines possess a high intention to become entrepreneurs, there are, however,

predominantly push factors such as unemployment, poverty, and job security that force

university students to aim at engaging in various forms of entrepreneurship. This becomes a

call for concern because studies have established that businesses that started due to necessity

are less successful as opposed to opportunity based on entrepreneurship that has a greater

impact on firm growth and job creation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following have been recommended:

Educational institutions introduce and strengthen entrepreneurship education and make it

accessible to all college and senior high school students irrespective of their fields of study. As

entrepreneurship is developed and nurtured at an early age, it becomes easier to develop

successful businesses. Also, in order to enhance business skills, university students in the

Philippines should undergo industrial internships for at least a year during their study in order

to enable them to gain valuable business and technical experience. Furthermore, university

students should be encouraged to consider entrepreneurship as a career rather than depending

on government and private sector for limited job opportunities. This requires a change of

mindsets and attitudes of the youths in the Philippines.

The government should put in place Support Programs for University students that give them

credit to start up economic livelihood projects that are free from inconsistencies and

inefficiencies such as lengthy and slow processing, excessive bureaucracy and the untimely

release of funds for youth that could highly undermine and weaken the potential impact of

such programs and initiative in reducing unemployment. As such, in order to ensure the

effective implementation of these programs, monitoring and follow-up programs should be

put in place to assess the impact of these programs With regard to bribery and corruption, the

government has to put in place a broad operation of the law in the context of anti-corruption in

the Philippines that will arrest and convict culprits With respect to taxes, the Philippine

government should introduce tax breaks and set up a project wherein all business owners can

pay their tax using Mobile Money, the cellular phone-based payment system provided Telecom

as a means of reducing the number of corrupt officials harassing small business owners for

money.

Also, studies should examine the weakness in the educational system and curriculum in the

Philippines with respect to entrepreneurship.

With the high rate of unemployment and underemployment among the youth, creating

sustainable jobs should become the top priority for the government. As such, encouraging

greater number of individual and university students to start high growth businesses should

become a top priority agenda for policy makers in the country as prior empirical evidences

suggest that growth –oriented businesses are catalysts for employment, innovation and skill.

Furthermore, while entrepreneurship education was seen to have significant effect on EI, it is

important to encourage more students to take entrepreneurship courses so as to enhance their

Page 45 of 54

65

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

subjective norms and intentions towards entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship education is

needed to enhance skills and knowledge.

Organizations intending to make any intervention on graduate entrepreneurship in the

Philippines are urged to focus on married graduates between graduates who had studied

entrepreneurship and those who had not studied entrepreneurship. This study suggests that

the universities should focus their attention on attracting students towards entrepreneurial

education as students who attended entrepreneurial courses/trainings showed significantly

higher entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, universities are recommended to expand the

number of entrepreneurship courses/ trainings as well as provide the opportunity to take

entrepreneurial course/training to the students from all the faculties/departments of this

university. Training and skills development programs are important in fostering personal

capabilities and interests among students to have positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship.

Furthermore, improving the image of entrepreneurship as a plausible career option could affect

students’ intentions towards entrepreneurship. The universities should promote

entrepreneurship through entrepreneur and business role models to draw a positive image of

entrepreneurship in the campus and to motivate students to pursue their projects. It is

important to facilitate interaction between experienced entrepreneurs and the students.

Growing evidence suggests that it is a normal process for any novel entrepreneurs to face the

challenges or obstacles during the early stage of establishing new ventures. Therefore,

entrepreneurs should be ready in nature to take those challenges or obstacles with open mind.

Future research must be done not only in the private but also in the public (state or local)

universities to provide support for these findings and that entrepreneurial education be also

introduced into the tertiary institutions which are not currently offering entrepreneurship

courses.

Further study is recommended to a bigger and wider population, like students in other

disciplines such as in the health care profession, education, information and technology etc.

References

Ahmed, I., Nawaz, M. M., Ahmad, Z., Shaukat, M. Z., Usman, A., Rehman, W. U., & Ahmed, N. (2010). Determinants

of Students Entrepreneurial Career Intentions: Evidence from Business Graduates. European Journal of Social

Sciences, vol.15(2)

Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes in

Souitaris, V., Zerbinati, S., and Al-laham, A. (2007). Do entrepreneurship programs raise entrepreneurial

intentions of science and engineering studnets? The effect of learning, inspiration, and Journal of Business

Venturing. vol. 22(4); also in Uddin and Bose (2012).

Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived Behavioral Control, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and the Theory of Planned

Behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(4). In Uddin and Bose (2012).

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the Attitude-Behavior Relation: Reasoned and Automatic

Processes. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (eds.). European Review of Social Psychology. John Wiley & Sons

Publications.

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior. In D. Albarracní, B. T. Johnson, & M. P.

Zanna (Eds. The handbook of attitudes.

Page 46 of 54

66

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Akpomi (2008) in Ngek Neneh, Brownhilder (2014). “An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention Among

university Students in Cameroon” Mediterrenean Journal of Social Science, vol. 5 (20) MCSER Publishing , Rome,

Italy

Ali A., Topping, K.J., and Tariq, H.R. (2010). “Entrepreneurial Attributes Among

Postgraduate Students of a Pakistani University”, US-China Education Review, 7(5),

Altinay, L., Madanoglu, M., Daniele, R., & Lashley, C. (2012). The Influence of Family Tradition and Psychological

Traits on Entrepreneurial intention. International Journal of Hospitality Management

Ashley-Cotleur, C, King, S. and Solomon, G. (2011). Parental and Gender Influences on Entrepreneurial Intentions,

Motivations and Attitudes. [Online] Available: http://usasbe.org/knowledge/proceedings/proceedings

Docs/USASBE 2003 proceedings-12pdf. (April 10, 2014).

Asuamah, Eernest and Amuah (2013). An Assessment of Entrepreneurship Intention Among Sunyani Polytechnic

Marketing Students, International Review of Management and Marketing, vol. 3, No. 1, 2013, retrieved from

www.econjournals.com

Autio, E., Keeley, R. H., Klofsten. M., Parker. G. G. C., & Hay, M. (2001). Entrepreneurial Intent among Students in

Scandinavia and in the USA. Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies. In Schwartz, E.J., Wdowiak, M.A.,

Almer-Jarz, D.A. and Breitinecker (2009). The Effects of Attitudes and Perceived Environmental Conditions on

Students’ Entrepreneurial Intent: An Austrian Perspective. Education & Training, vol. 51 (4)

Aykol, S. and Gurbuz, G. (2012). Entrepreneurial Intentions of Young Educated Public in Turkey. Journal of Global

Strategic Management, vol. 4

Bagheri, A., & Pihie, ZAL. (2011). Malay Students’ Entrepreneurial Attitude and Entrepreneurial Efficacy in

Vocational and Technical Secondary Schools of Malaysia. Pertanika Journal Social Sciences & Humanity, 19 (2)

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review. In

Barringer, B. R., & Ireland, R. D. (2010). Entrepreneurship: successfully launching new ventures (3rd ed.). New

Jersey: Pearson.

Barbosa and Moraes (2004). In Menaka Sajeewani Kodisinghe & Was Weerakkody ( 2012) Motivators Affecting

Entrepreneurial Intention among the Business Management Graduates in Sri Lanka

Barringer, B. R., & Ireland, R. D. (2010). Entrepreneurship: Successfully Launching New Ventures (3rd ed.). New

Jersey: Pearson.

Basu, A., & Virick, M. (2010). Assessing Entrepreneurial Intentions amongst Students: A Comparative Study.

Paper presented at 12th Annual Meeting of the National Collegiate of Inventors and Innovators Alliance, Dallas,

USA. in Rashid et al. (2012). Entrepreneurial Intention among Technical Students, American Journal of

Economics, June 2012, Special Issue: 7376 DOI: 10.5923/j.economics.20120001.17

Benzing, C. , Chu, HM & McGee, C. ( 2009). Ghanaian and Kenyan Entrepreneurship. Journal of Development

Entrepreneurship, vol. 12( 3)

Bird, B. (1988). Implementing Entrepreneurial Idea: The Case for Intention.

Academy of Management Review, 13(3) in Moi, Tung and Ling Adeline Yin (2011). Young Adult Responses to

Entrepreneurial Intent. World Journal of Arts, Science and Commerce, vol. 11, issue 3, July 2013

Birley and Westhead (1994) in Schwarz, EJ, Wdowiak, MA, Almer-Jarz, DA and Breitener, RJ (2009). In Sivarajah

& Achchuthan (2013).

Bosma, N., Van Praag M., & De Wit, G. (2000). Determinants of Successful Entrepreneurship. [Online] Available at:

http://www.entrepreneurshipsme.eu/pdf-ez/H200002.pdf. [Accessed May 6, 2014].

Page 47 of 54

67

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Byabashaija, W., & Katono, I. (2011). The Impact of College Entrepreneurial Education on Entrepreneurial

Attitudes and Intention to Start a Business in Uganda. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 16(1)

Bygrave, W.D. and Zacharakis, A. (2004). In Yeboah, S., Kumi, E. and Amuah, J.B. (2013). An Assessment of

Entrepreneurial Intention among Sunyani Polytechnic Marketing Students. International Review of Management

and Marketing, vol. 3(1). Retrieved www.econjournals.com

Casson, M. (2003) in Yeboah, S., Kumi, E. and Amuah, J.B.( 2013). An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention

among Sunyani Polytechnic Marketing Students. International Review of Management and Marketing, vol. 3(1).

Retrieved www.econjournals.com

Choo, S. & Wong, M. (2011). Entrepreneurial Intention: Triggers and Barriers to New Venture Creations in

Singapore. Singapore Management Review, 28(2)

Crant, J.M. (1996). The Proactive Personality Scale as a Predictor of Entrepreneurial intentions. In Sivarajah, K.

and Achchuthan, S. (2013). Entrepreneurial intention among undergraduates: Review of Literature, European

Journal of Business and Management, vol. 5 (5). vol. 5 ( 5) retrieved from www.jjste.org.

Davidsson, P., Lindmark, L., & Olofsson, C. (1995) ” The Trend towards Smaller Scale during the 1980s: Empirical

Evidence from Sweden”, paper presented at the 40th ICSB World Conference, Sydney, June 18-21 in Ngek Neneh,

Brownhilder ( 2014). “ An Assessessment of Entrepreneurial Intention Among university students in Cameroon”

Mediterrenean Journal of Social Science, vol. 5 (20) MCSER Publishing , Rome, Italy

Dawey, T., Plewa, C. & Struwig, M. (2011). Entrepreneurship Perceptions and Career Intentions of International

Students. Education and Training, vol 53(5)

Dawson, C., & Henley, A. (2012) "“Push” Versus “Pull” Entrepreneurship: An Ambiguous Distinction?

International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 18(6)

Dell, M. S. (2008). An Investigation of Undergraduate Student Self-Employment Intention and the Impact of

Entrepreneurship Education and Previous Entrepreneurial Experience. Doctor of Philosophy, School of Business

University

Delmar, F., & Davidsson, P. (2000). Where Do They Come From? Prevalence and Characteristics of Nascent

Entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 12,1-23. In Linan and Chen (2006). Testing the

Entrepreneurial Intention Model on a Two-Country Sample.

DeMartino, R., & Barbato, R. (2003). Differences Between Women and Men MBA Entrepreneurs: Exploring

Family Flexibility and Wealth Creation as Career Motivators. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6. In Ngek Neneh

(2014). An Assessment of EI among University Students in Cameroon. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences .

MCSER Publishing, Rome, Italy. Doi: 10.590i/mjss.2014. vol. 50(200 Philippine Department of Trade and

Industry (2012)

Díaz-García, M.C., & Jiménez-Moreno, J. (2009). Entrepreneurial intention: The Role of Gender. International

Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 6(3):261-283.

Dickson, P. H., Solomon, G. T. & Mark Weaver, K. (2008). Entrepreneurial Selection and Success: Does Education

Matter? Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15(2), 239-258.

Dohse, D., & Walter, S. G. (2010). The Role of Entrepreneurship Education and Regional Context in Forming

Entrepreneurial Intentions. Working Paper presented at Document de Treball de l‟IEB 2010/18.

Douglas, E.J., Shepherd, D.A. (2002). Self-employment As A Career Choice: Attitudes, Entrepreneurial Intentions,

and Utility Maximization. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 26(3), in Papazan, Afstharzade, and Moradi.

Entrepreneurial Intention Determinants: An Empirical Model and A Case of Iranian Students in Malaysia

Page 48 of 54

68

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Drost, Ellen A. (2010). Entrepreneurial Intentions of Business Students in Finland: Implications for Education.

Advances in Management, 3(7)

Drucker, P.F. (1994) Innovation and Entrepreneurship. UK: Butterworth and Heinemann in Wouter Duijn.

Entrepreneurial Intentions among FDEWB Students, retrieved from http: //www.sudosus.nlfly in Susetyo, D. and

Sri Lestari, P. ( 2004). Developing Entrepreneurial Intention Model of University Students in Semarang,

Indonesia, International Journal of Engineering and Management Sciences . vol. 5 (3), 2014 retrieved from

www..science andnature.org

Dublin Ooi, Y.K., & Ahmad, S. (2012). A Study among University Students in Business Start-Ups in Malaysia:

Motivations and Obstacles to Become Entrepreneurs. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(19)

Eijdenberg, E. L., & Masurel, E. (2013). Entrepreneurial Motivation in a Least Developed Country: Push Factors

and Pull Factors among MSEs in Uganda. Journal of Enterprising Culture, vol. 21(1)

Ekore, J.O., & Okekeocha, O.C. (2012). Fear of Entrepreneurship among University Graduates: A Psychological

Analysis. International Journal of Management, 29(2)

Ekpoh, U. I., & Edet, A. O. (2011) and Ooi, Selvarajah and Meyer (2011) in Van der Sluis, J, van Praag, M. and

Vijverberg, W., (2013). Returns to Education for Entrepreneurs and Employees: identification By Means of

Changes in Compulsory Schooling Laws, University of Amsterdam Working paper, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Elfving, J., Brännback, M., & Carsrud, A. (2009). Toward A Contextual Model of Entrepreneurial Intentions.

International Studies in Entrepreneurship, 24, Part 1, 23-33. Entrepreneurial -Profile of an Entrepreneur. (2003).

http://www.businesstown.com/entrepreneur/article1.asp

Engle, R.L. Dimitriadi, N., Gavidia, JV and Schlaegel, C. ( 2012).” Entrepreneurial Intent: A Twelve Country

Evaluation of Ajzen’s Model of Planned Behavior”, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and

Research , vol. 16 (1)

Epstein (1993). In Ngek Neneh An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention among University Students in

Cameroon. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, MCSERS Publishing, Rome, Italy, vol. 5 (20)

European Commission (EU). (2009). Entrepreneurship Education in Europe: Fostering entrepreneurial Mindsets

Through Education and Learning, Final proceedings of the conference on Entrepreneurship Education in Oslo.

Fatoki, O.O.(2010). Graduate Entrepreneurial Intention in South Africa: Motivations and Obstacles. International

Journal of Business and Management, vol. 5(9)

Fatoki, O.O., & Chindoga, L. (2011). Investigation Into the Obstacles to Youth Entrepreneurship in South Africa,

International Business Research, 4 (2).

Fayolle, A.G. and B. Gailly (2005). Using the theory of Planned Behavior to Assess Entrepreneurship Teaching

Programs, Center for Research in Change, Innovation and Strategy. In Rashid et al. (2012). Entrepreneurial

Intention among Technical Students. American Journal of Economics, June 2012, Special Issue: 73-76 DOI:

10.5923/j.economics.20120001.17

Fitzsimmons, J.R. and Douglas, F.J. (2006). The Impact of Overconfidence in Entrepreneurial Intentions, Regional

Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/aca2c682-1797-4bbf- a251-3eccc9c166fd/1/PDF%20%28Published%20version%29.pdf

Fleming, P (1996). Entrepreneurship Education in Ireland: A Longitudinal Study. Academy of Entrepreneurship

Journal, vol 2 (1) In Ooi, Y.K. and Ahmad, S.(2012). A study among University students in Business Start-ups in

Malaysia: Motivations and Obstacles to Become Entrepreneurs. International Journal of Business and Social

Sciences, vol 3(19)

Page 49 of 54

69

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Frazier, B. J. & Niehm, L. S. (2010). Predicting the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Non-Business Majors: A

Preliminary Investigation. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi= 10.1.1. 334.

2930 &rep=rep1&type=pdf] accessed on 02/04/2014.

Garavan and O’Cinneide (1994). Entrepreneurship Education and Training Programmes: A Review and

Evaluation Part 1 Journal of European Industrial Training, vol 18(8). In Ooi, YK, Selvarajah, C and Meyer, D. (

2012). Inclination Towards Entrepreneurship Among University Students: An Empirical Study of Malaysian

University Students.

Gelard, P. & Saleh, K. E. (2010). Impact of Some Contextual Factors on Entrepreneurial Intentions of University

Students. African Journal of Business Management, 5(26)

Giovanis, A., Sdrolias, A. & Sahinidis, A. (2012). The Role of Gender on Entrepreneurial Intention Among

Students: An Empirical Test of the Theory of Planned Behavior in a Greek University. International Journal on

Integrated Information Management. vol.1 (1)

Giacomin, O., Janssen, F., Pruett, M., Shinnar, R. S., Llopis, F., & Toney, B. (2011). Entrepreneurial intentions,

motivations and barriers: Differences among American, Asian and European Students. International

Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, vol.7(2).

Graevenitz, G. V., Harhoff, D., & Weber, R. (2011). The effect of entrepreneurship education. Journal of Economic

Behavior & Organization,76(1)

Gree & Thurnik (2003). In Fatoki, Olawale Olufunso (2010) Graduate Entrepreneurial Intention in South Africa:

Motivations and Obstacles. International Journal of Business and Management, vol. 5, No. 9; September 2010.

www.ccsenet. .org. ijbm. Gupta, V.K., Turban, D.B., Wasti, S.A., & Skidar, A. (2009). The Role of Gender Stereotypes

in Perceptions of Entrepreneurs and Intentions to Become an Entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship Theory &

Practice, 33(2)

Gupta, V. K., & York, A. S. (2009). Attitudes Toward Entrepreneurship and Small Business: Findings from a Survey

of Nebraska Residentsand S mall Business Owners. Journal of Enterprising Communities 2: 348–66.

Hannan, M., Hazlett, S.A., and Leitch, C. ( 2004). Entrepreneurship Education: How Do We Measure Success?

Working paper, Queen’s University of Belfast. In Segumpan, RG and Zahari, Joanna Soraya Abu ( 2012). Attitude

Towards Entrepreneurship among Omani College Students Trained in Business. International Journal of

Business and Behavioral Sciences , vol 2 (4), April 2012.

Henley, A. (2007). Entrepreneurial Aspirations and Transition Into Self-Efficacy: Evidence From British

Longitudinal Data. Entrepreneurship and Research Development, vol. 19

Herrington, M. , Kew, J., and Kew, P. (2009). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor,

South African Report. [Online] Available: http://www. gbs.nct.ac.za/gbswebb/userfiles/gemsouthafrica 2000pdf

(October 15, 2013).

Hisrich, R. D., Peters, M. P., & Shepherd, D. A. (2008) cited in Ferreira, Rodriguez, Raposa &Dinis ( 2012). A Model

of Entrepreneurial Intention : An Application of the Psychological and Behavioral Approaches .

https://www.researchgate.net//publication/235250496_A_Model_of_Entrepreneurial_Intention_An

_Application _of _the_Psychological_and_Behavioral _Approaches. DOI: 10.1108/146260121125

Iakovleva, T. Kolvereid, L. & Stephan, U. (2011). Entrepreneurial Intentions in Developing and Developed

Countries. Education and Training Ibon, Manila Times , November 30, 2015

Islam, S. (2012). Pull and Push Factors Towards Small Entrepreneurship Development in Bangladesh. Journal of

Research in International Business Management, 2(3). March2012

availableonline@http://www.interesjournals.org

Page 50 of 54

70

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Islam, Serazul (2012). Push and Pull factors tTowards All Entrepreneurial Development in Bangladesh. Journal of

researchin International Business Management, vol. 2(3). March 2012 available online

@http://www.interesjournals.org

Ismail, M., Khalid, S.A., Othman, M., Jusoff, H. K., Rahman, N. A., Kassim, K. M., & Zain, K. M. (2009).

Entrepreneurial Intention among Malaysian Undergraduates. International of Business and Management, 4(10.

In Zahariah Mohd Zain, Amalina Mohd Akram & Erlane Hgani (2011). )

Izquierdo, E. and Buelens, M. (2010). Competing Models of Entrepreneurial Intentions: The Influence of

Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Attitudes. Internationalizing Entrepreneurship Education and Training,

IntEnt2008 Conference, 17–20 July 2008, Oxford, Ohio, USA.

Katundu, Mangasini Atanasi & Gabagambi, Damian Mulokozi (2014). Demographic Determinants of Tanzanian

Graduates’ Entrepreneurial Entry Intentions: The Case of University of Dar-Es-Salaam

Keong, C.L. (2008). An Empirical Study among Open University Malaysian Students (online) available

http//eprints.cum.edu.my/306/1Entrepreneurial__an empirical study among OUM_Malaysian students pdf (

May 14, 2014).

Khan, M. M., Ahmed, I., Nawaz, M. M., & Ramzan, M. (2011). Impact of Personality Traits on Entrepreneurial

intentions of University Students”. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research in Business, 1(4).

Kirkwood, J.J. (2007). Igniting the Entrepreneurial Spirit: Is the Role Parents Play Gendered?. International

Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research, vol. 13(1) one size doesn’t fit all: gender differences in

motivations to becoming an entrepreneur, PhD dissertation presented at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New

Zealand

Knight, Drucker, Hart, Stevenson and Dial (2008) in Uddin, Md Reaz and Bose, TK (2012). Journal of Business and

Management, vol 7 (4) published by the Canadian Center of Science and Education, online published November

28, 2012 URI: http: //dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.

Kolvereid. L & Isaksen. E. (2006). “New Business Start-Up and Subsequent Entry Into Self-Employment”. Journal

of Business Venturing, 21(6)

Kolvereid ( 1993) & Matthews and Moser (1995) . In Sivarajah & Achchuthan ( 2013).

Korunka, C, Frank, H. Lueger, M. and Mugler, J. (2003). The Entrepreneurial Personality in the Context of

Resources, Environment and the Start-Up Process: A Configurational Approach, Theory and Practice, vol. 28(1)

In Peng, Zhenhxia and Genshu Lu (2012). Entrepreneurial Intentions and Its Influencing Factors: A Survey of the

University Students in Xi’an, China. Creative Education, vol. 3, published online December 2012 in SciRes (

http://www.SCiRP.org/journal/ce

Kristiansen, S., & Indarti, N. (2004). EntrepreneurialIintention among indonesian and Norwegian Students.

Journal of Enterprising Culture, vol. 12(1) In Rae, O and Woodier, N (2006). “Graduate Career Choices and

Entrepreneurship”, a research report 007/206, National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship

Krueger, N. F. Jr., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2011). Competing Model of Entrepreneurial Intentions. Journal of

Business Venturing, 15(5-6). In Papzan, A., Afsharzade, N., and Moradi, K.(2013). “Enrepreneurial Intention

Determinants: An Empirical Model and A Case of Iranian Students in Malaysia”, Journal of Entrepreneurship

Management and Innovation, vol. 9 issue 3.

Labor Force Survey (LFS), Philippine Statistical Data , October 2015

Lee Wei Ni, Lim Bao Ping, Lim Li Ying, Ng Huei Sern & Wong Jia Lih ( 2012) Entrepreneurial Intention: A Study

among Students of Higher Learning Institution

Page 51 of 54

71

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Leong, C. K. (2008). Entrepreneurial Intention: An Empirical Study Among Open University Malaysia Students. A

dissertation for the Open University Malaysia Center for Graduate Studies. [Online]

Available:http://eprints.oum.edu.my/306/1/Entrepreneurial_Intention_An_Empirical_Study_among_OUM_Stude

nts.pdf.(May,14th, 2014).

Leroy, Maes Sels, Debrulle and Meuleman (2011) In Sivarajah, K. and Achchutan, S. (2013). Entrepreneurial

Intentions among Undergraduates: A Review of Literature, vol. 5(5).

Lorz, M. (2011). The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Intentions, PhD dissertation at

the University of St Gallen, School of Management, Economics, Law, Social Sciences and International Affairs,

Germany

Luthje and Frankl (2003).” The making of an entrepreneur: testing a model of entrepreneurial intent among

engineering students at MIT”. Research and Development Management, vol. 33 (2) in Rashid et al., (2012).

Entrepreneurial Intention Among Technical Students, American Journal of Economics, June 2012,

Special Issue: 73-76 DOI: 10.5923/j.economics.20120001.17

Madarang, Imelda and Habito, Cielito, Philippine Entrepreneurship Monitoring Report 2006-2007

Majumdar, S. and Varadarajan, D. (2012). “Students’ Attitude Towards Entrepreneurship: Does Gender

Matter in the United Arab Emirates? ”. Foresight, vol.15(4). Retrieved http://dx.da.org/10.1108/FS03-2012-

0011 U?

Matlay, H. (2008). “The Impact of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial Outcomes”. Journal of Small

Business and Enterprise Development, 15(2)

Matthews & Moser, S.B. (1995). Impact of Family Background and Gneder: Implications for Interest in Small Firm

Ownership, Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, vol. 7 (4) In Uddin, Md R. and Bose, TK ( 2012).

“Determinants of Entrepreneurial Intention of Business Students in Bangladesh”. International Journal of

Business and Management, vol. 7(24) or In Rashid et al. (2012). “Entrepreneurial Intention Among Technical

Students”, American Journal of Economics, June 2012, Special Issue: 73-76 DOI:

10.5923/j.economics.20120001.17

McStay, D.(2011). An Investigation of Undergraduate Student Self-Employment Intention and the Impact of

Entrepreneurship Education and Previous Entrepreneurial Experience”. School of Business. University of

Australia

Mohammad Ismail, Shaiful Annuar Khalid, Mohmod Othman, H.J., Kamaruzaman Jusoff, Norshimah Abdul

Rahman, Kamsol Mohamed Kassim, & Rozihana Shekh Zain. (2011). “Entrepreneurial Intention among

Malaysian Undergraduates. International Journal of Business and Management”, vol. 4(10).

Morshidi, E.M., Bakar, R., Lim, H.E., & Mohammed, N.K. (2004). Study of Academic Achievement and

Employability of Graduates in Higher Education Institutions. University of Malaysia: Higher Education Research

Institute in Ngek Neneh, B. ( 2014). An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention Among University Students in

Cameroon, Mediterranean, Journal of Social Sciences , vol. 5( 20).

Moy, J, J., Luk V Sheenan, B., and Sammapan, N. (2014). A Comparative Study on the Persons of University

Business students in Hongkong and Thailand: Why do they become entrepreneurs? BRC Working papers:

Online) available http//http//nt2hkbu.edu.hkI-ied/publications /WP200102.pdf May 21, 2014

Nabi, G., Holden, R. and Walmsley, A. ( 2011). “Graduate Career-Makign and Busienss Start-Up: A Literature

Review”, Education and Training , vol 48 (5)

Ngek Neneh, Brownhilder (2014). An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention Among University Students in

Cameroon . Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, MCSERS Publishing, Rome, Italy, vol. 5 ( 20)

Page 52 of 54

72

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Olufunso, O.F. (2010). Graduate Entrepreneurial intention in South Africa: Motivations and Obstacles.

International Journal of Business and Management

Ooi, Y. K. (2008). Inclination Towards Entrepreneurship among Malaysian University Students in Northern

Peninsular Malaysia, Unpublished doctoral thesis, Australian Graduate School of Entrepreneurship Swinburne

University of Technology.

Ooi, Y, K., Selvarajah, C., & Meyer, D. (2011).” Inclination Towards Entrepreneurship among University Students:

An Empirical Study of Malaysian University Students”. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(4),

206-220.

Ooi, YK and Ahmad S (2012). A Study among University Students in Business Start-Ups in Malaysia: Motivators

and Obstacles to Become Entrepreneurs. International Journal of Business and Social Science, vol 3 (19)

Opoku-Antwi, G.L., Amofah, K., Nyamaah-Kofluor, K. and Yakubu, A. 2012). Entrepreneurial Intentions among

Senior High school Students in the Sunya Municipality Inst. International Review of Management and

Marketing, 2(4).

Paço, A. M. F., Ferreira J. M., Raposo, M., Rodrigues, R. G., & Dinis, A. (2011). “Behaviours and entrepreneurial

intention: Empirical findings about secondary students”. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, vol. 9.

Parker, S. C. and van Praag, M. (2012), “The entrepreneur’s mode of entry: business takeover or new venture

start?”, Journal of Business Venturing 27(1)

Philippine Statistics Office Data (2015). PSA releases 2015 in Figures https://psa.gov.ph/content psa- releases2015-philippines-figures

Pihie, Zal (2009). Entrepreneurship as a Career Choice: An Analysis of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and

Intention of University Students . European Journal of Social Science

Plant, R. and Ren, J. ( 2010). A comparative study of motivation and entrepreneurial intentionality: Chinese and

American Perspectives. Journal of Development Entepreneurship, vol. 15(2)

Pruett, M. Shinnar, R., Toney, B., Lopis, F., Fox, J. (2009).” Explaining entrepreneurial intentions of university

students”: a cross-cultural study. International Journal of Entreprenurial Behavior and Research, vol. 15(6)

Robertson, M., Collins, A., Medeira, N., Slater, J. (2003). Barriers to Start-up and Their Effects on Aspirant

Entrepreneurs. Education and Training 45(6)

https://www.researchgate.netpublication1235272681_Barriers_to_start_up_and_Their_Effects_on_aspirant_entr

epreneurs.

Sandhu, M.S., Sidique, S.F., Riaz, S. (2011). Entrepreneurship Brriers and Entrepreneurial Inclination among

Malaysian Postgraduate Students. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 17(4).

Sathiabama, K. (2010). Rural Women Empowerment and Entrepreneurship Development” [Online]. Available:

http://www.microfinancegateway.org/ga)

Segumpan, RG and Zahari, Joanna Soraya Abu (2012). Attitude Towards Entreprenurship among Omani College

Students Trained in Business. International Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences , vol 2 (4), April 2012

Simola, V. (2011. Intrinsic or extrinsic? A study on motivational factors among a network of entrepreneurship

mentors: Case venture Cup Finland, unpublished master’s thesis, Aalto Universit ( online) abvailable

http://hsepubl.lib hse.f/FL/thessi/pdf12483/hse_ethesis_12483.pdf ( May 2, 2014)

Solesvik, M. ( 2010). Attitudes Towards Future Career Choice: Stavanger Center for Innovation Research,

University of Stavanger, Norway.

Page 53 of 54

73

Mangada, E. (2023). Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Motivations among University Students in the National Capital Region. Advances in

Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(2). 21-74.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.102.12102

Stevenson and Jarillo as cited in Barringer, B. R., & Ireland, R. D. (2010). Entrepreneurship: successfully

launching new ventures (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson.

Souitaris, V., Zerbinati, S., and Al-laham, A. (2009)). “Do Entrepreneurship Programs Raise Entrepreneurial

Intentions of Science and Engineering students? The Effect of Learning and Inspiration. Journal of Business

Venturing. vol. 22(4).

Tam, H. W. (2009). How and to What Extent Does Entrepreneurship Education Make Students More

Entrepreneurial? A California Case of the Technology Management Program. Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation,

University of California, Santa Barbara.

Taramisi Sama-Ae. (2009). An Examination on The Entrepreneurial Intention Among Thai Students At Universiti

Utara Malaysia (UUM). Unpublished Thesis, University Utara Malaysia.

Thompson, E.R. (2009). Individual Entrepreneurial Intent: Construct Clarification and Development of an

Internationally Reliable Metric. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 33(3)

Teixeira, A.A.C. (2010). Attitudes of Higher Education students to new venture creation: a preliminary approach

to the Portuguese case, INESC Porto, CEMPRE, Faculdade de Economia, Universidade do Porto, Portugal

Trevelyan, R. (2009). Entrepreneurial attitudes and action in new venture development. Entrepreneurship and

Innovation, 10(1), 21-32. Unemployment, total (% of total labor force). (2012). Retrieved June 23, 2012, from

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS/countries/MY?d isplay=default. In Lee Wei Ni, Lim Bao

Ping, Lim Li Ying, Ng Huei Sern & Wong Jia Lih ( 2012).

Turker, D., & Selcuk, S, (2010). Which factors affect entrepreneurial intention of university students? Journal of

European Industrial Training, 33(2)

Uddin, R., & Kanti, T. (2013). Motivation , Success Factors and Challenges of Entrepreneurs in Khulna City of

Bangladesh, 5(16), 148–157.

Van Gelderen, M., Brand, M., van Praag, M., Bodewes, W., Poutsma, E., & van Gils, A. (2008). Explaining

entrepreneurial intentions by means of the theory of planned behaviour. Career Development International,

13(6)doi: 10.1108/13620430810901688 in Papzan, A., Afsharzade, N., and Moradi, K. ( 2013) Entrepreneurial

Intention Determinants: An Empirical Model and a Case of Iranian Students in Malaysia” Journal of

Entrepreneurship Management and Innovation, vol. 9, issue , 2013

Vazquez, J. L., Naghiu, A., Gutierrez, P., Lanero, A., & Garcia, M. P. (2010). Entrepreneurial Potential in the

University: Intentions and Attitudes towards New Venture Creation. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture, 66(2).

Veciana, J. M., Aponte. M., & Urbano. D. (2005). University Students‟ Attitudes Towards Entrepreneurship: A Two

Countries Comparison. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal in Rashid et. al., (2012).

Entrepreneurial Intention Among Technical Students, American Journal of Economics, June 2012,

Special Issue: 73-76 DOI: 10.5923/j.economics.20120001.17

Venesaar, U., Kolbre, E., & Piliste, T. (2011). Students’ Attitudes and Intentions toward Entrepreneurship at

Tallinn University of Technology. Published in Working Papers in Economics. School of Economics and Business

Administration, Tallinn University of Technology (TUTWPE)

Verheul, I., Thurik, R., Grilo, I., & van der Zwan, P. (2012). Explaining Preferences and Actual Involvement in Self- Employment: Gender and the Entrepreneurial Personality. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2)

Wang, C. K., & Wong, P. K. (2010)).Entrepreneurial Interest of University Students in Singapore. Technovation,

vol. 24 in Segumpan, R.G. and Abu Zahari, JS ( 2012). Attitude Towards Entrepreneurship Among College

Students Trained in Business, International Journal of Business and Behavioral Science , vol 2. (4), April 2012

Page 54 of 54

74

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 2, February-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Westhead, P. (2011). Company performance and objectives reported by first and multi-generation family

companies. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise. In Ngek Neneh, B. ( 2014). An Assessment of

Entrepreneurial Intention Amogn University Studnets in Cameroon, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences ,

vol. 5(20). September 2014

Wilberforce and Fleming (2001) in Uddin, Md Reaz and Bose, Tarun Kanti (2012). Determinants of

Entrepreneurial Intention of Business Students in Bangladesh. International Journal of Business and

Management; published by Canadian Center of Science and Education, Vol. 7, No. 24

World Bank. (2013). Philippine Economic Update: Mitigating Poverty, Vulnerability, and Risk A Special Focus on

Social Safety Nets. [Online]:https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/1098

6/16621/NonAsciiFileName0.pdf?sequence=1 (May 13, 2014).

World Economic Forum 2009 in European Commission (2008)

Wu, S. and Wu, L. (2012). The Impact of Higher Education on Entrepreneurial Intentions of University Students

in China. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, vol. 15(14).

Xavier, R., Ahmad Zaki, Dewi Amat Sapuan, Leilanie Mohd Nor, Mohar Yusof, Ainon Jauhariah, Mohd Hanif, Hanita

Sarah Saad, & Saad, N. (2013). The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) Malaysian Report, 2009. Retrieved

June 23, 2012, from http://www.gemconsortium.org/docs/download/753

Yeboah, A.S., Kumi, E., & Awuah, B.J. (2013). An Assessment of Entrepreneurship Intention among Sunyani

Polytechnic marketing student. International Review of Management and Marketing, vol. 3(1)in Ngek Neneh,

Brownhilder ( 2014). “ An Assessment of Entrepreneurial Intention Among university students in Cameroon”

Mediterrenean Journal of Social Science, vol. 5 (20) MCSER Publishing , Rome, Italy

Yordanova, D., & Tarrazon, Maria-Antonia. (2010). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Intentions: Evidence

From Bulgaria. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 15(3)

Zain, Z. M., Akram, A. M., & Ghani, E. K. (2010). Entrepreneurship Intentions Among Malaysian Business Students.

Canadian Social Science, 6(3)

Zhou, H., Tao, H., Zhong, C., & Wang, L. (2012). Entrepreneurship Quality of College Students Related to

Entrepreneurial Education. Energy Procedia 17, 1907 – 1913.

Zhuplev, A, Kon’kov, A and Kiesner, F ( 1998). Russia and American Small Business: Motivators and Obstacles.

European Management Journal, vol. 16(4) in Ooi, YK and Ahmad, S. ( 2012). “ A Study Among University Students

in Business Start-Ups in Malaysia: Motivators and Obstacles to Become Entrepreneurs. International Journal of

Business and Social Sceince, vol. 3(19), October 2012