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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 9, Issue 11, November-2022
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
METHODS
This review utilises the 'Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
for Scoping reviews' to search and screen for literature on alcohol policies [2]. Eligible citations
include information on alcohol policies in at least one of the PICT. Literature from all
geographical areas was viewed; however, only publications produced in English or French were
included. French publications were analysed using google translate. All publications were
analysed using a thematic analysis and cross checked with the supervisor. Suitable literature
types included books, dissertations, journal articles, literature reviews, reports, systematic
reviews, theses, websites, and other documents. A total of 64 articles were used in this report,
ranging from 1963 to 2020. A search of Scopus, Google Scholar, Medline (OVID), Medline
(PubMed), Clinical key, Science Direct, ProQuest Research Library, and the Library Catalogue
provided potentially relevant citations. Governmental websites and policies supplemented this
database search.
RESULTS
The results encountered a number of key themes which is presented below.
Legal Drinking Age
The legal drinking age in PICT varies between 18 and 21 years. PICT with a legal drinking age
of 21 years includes American Samoa, Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Guam,
Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Samoa, Solomon
Islands and Tonga [3-17]. PICT with a legal drinking age of 18 years includes the Cook Islands,
Niue, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Tokelau, Tuvalu and Vanuatu [18-26]. Countries
with a legal drinking age of 21 recorded a higher rate of youth alcohol consumption than PICT
with a legal drinking age of 18 years. The Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSSHS)
offers statistics between 2004 and 2018 outlining youth alcohol consumption in PICT [27]. In
countries with a legal drinking age of 21 years, 32.3% of youth reported on average consuming
alcohol at least once in the past 30 days compared with 23.17% in PICT with a legal drinking
age of 18 years [27]. The Federated States of Micronesia recorded the highest rate of youth
alcohol consumption in the past 30 days at 76.3% compared with Vanuatu at the lowest rate of
8.3% [27-28].
Environment Regulations
Environmental regulations on alcohol can protect people from alcohol-related harm.
Environmental regulations include restrictions on the sale, supply, or consumption of alcohol
at work, near schools, churches, and the public. In American Samoa, the 2019 Drug policy
prohibits the use of alcohol at work[29]. In French Polynesia, there are prohibitions on the sale
of alcohol near churches and high schools [4]. Guam and Nauru prohibit alcohol consumption
in designated alcohol-free zones [15,16]. New Caledonia prohibits public drunkenness. Papua
New Guinea prohibits the sale of alcohol, where there are unlawful games [22]. Tonga prohibits
the sale of alcohol in areas where it is likely to harm the well-being of the community [5].
Alcohol Taxation
The excise tax on spirits and beer differs across PICT, with alcohol taxes on spirits being
generally higher than beer across all PICT. This difference is significant as spirits are much
stronger in terms of alcohol per volume than beer [30]. In the Cook Islands, the import levy on
beer ranges from 90c to $22.592 per litre; for spirits, it is $8.04 to $43.68 per litre [31]. In the
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Ikiua, M., & Nosa, V. (2022). Alcohol Policies in Pacific Islands Countries and Territories: A Scoping Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research
Journal, 9(11). 151-157.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.911.13394
Federated States of Micronesia, the import duty on beer is 25c per 0.35 litres, and for spirits, it
is $12 for every 4 litres [31]. In Fiji, the excise duty for beer is $3.43 to $3.99 per litre, and for
spirits, it is $75.47 to $132.17 a litre [32]. In Guam, beer not locally manufactured is 7c per 0.35
litres; for spirits, it is $18 for every 4 litres 16. In Kiribati, the excise rate for beer is $3 per litre;
for spirits, it is 30c to $15.60 per litre [33] 33. In the Marshall Islands, the tax rate on beer is 35c
per 0.3 litres and $15 for every 4 litres [34]. In Nauru, the beer tariff is 7c per 0.35 litres; for
spirits, it is $10 per litre [35]. In Niue, the tax on beer and spirits is 10% [35]. In the Northern
Mariana Islands, the tax rate on beer is 2c per 30ml; for spirits, it is 18c per 30 ml [36,37]. The
import tariff is 5c per can of beer; for spirits, it is $15 for every 4 litres [37]. In Palau, the import
tax on beer is 3c, and for spirits, it is 30c per 30ml [37] 37. In Papua New Guinea, the excise duty
for beer is 71.61 and 122.27 PGK per litre, and for spirits, it is 129.71 and 139.16 PGK per litre
[38]. In Samoa, the excise tax on beer is $2.40 per litre; for spirits, it is $10 to $32 per litre [39].
The import excise rate on beer is 55%, and for spirits, it is 60% [40]. In Tonga, the tax rate on
beer is $10 to $50 per litre [41]. In Tokelau, the import duty rate on alcoholic beverages is 109
per cent ad valorem [42]. In Vanuatu, the excise tax rate on beer is 140 to 300 vatu per litre; for
spirits, it is 200 to 1200 vatu per litre [43] .
There are various responses from PICT on the use of alcohol taxes. Understanding these
responses can support the formulation of successful tax strategies. Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam,
New Caledonia, Niue, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Wallis and Futuna use alcohol
taxes strategically to decrease access and to mitigate alcohol-related problems [16,19,44-49].
For example, in New Caledonia, alcohol tax rates increased from 20% to 30% in 2017 to curb
the accession of alcohol consumption, alcohol-related deaths, violence, and youth delinquency
[19]. In Guam, Niue and French Polynesia, alcohol taxes is earmarked for alcohol prevention
activities; doing so maximises the potential of alcohol taxation schemes to mitigate alcohol
consumption and the harms associated with its misuse 16,46, 50-55]. By contrast, alcohol taxes
in American Samoa are generally unpopular, alcohol in the Marshall Islands remains
inexpensive, and Samoa has faced issues implementing a sustainable tax rate without disabling
the local liquor industry [56-58].
Disaggregating the data by region we can see differences in the success and difficulty of
implementing an alcohol tax strategy successfully. PICT of Micronesia and Polynesia have
maximised the potential for alcohol taxes to decrease alcohol consumption by earmarking
funds towards preventions activities [16,46,50,53,54]. Alternatively, Melanesia and Polynesia
have had difficulties implementing an effective tax strategy without disabling the local liquor
industry [56,58].
Alcohol Regulations
Regulations on commercial alcohol, such as alcohol taxes have increased home-brew
consumption. This is because, home-brew is not regulated and more affordable than alcoholic
beverages [1,59-62]. In light of these unintended consequences, many PICT have implemented
strategies to regulate the use of home- brew. In Papua New Guinea, fines on home-brew
increased from 200 Papua New Guinean kina (PGK) to 50,000 PGK following an alcohol tax
increase in 2019. In Micronesia, the effect of alcohol taxes on home-brew consumption has led
to increasing fines [63].