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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 4

Publication Date: April 25, 2023

DOI:10.14738/assrj.104.13682.

Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District

West Nile Sub Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green

Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub Region, Uganda

Kizito Geofrey

Fredrick Ruguma Tumwine

ABSTRACT

Uganda continues to experience high-refugee population influx that is beyond the

established settlement capacities. The large and protract influx of migration and

displaced persons in various hosting regions in Uganda is said to have brought

about severe and continuous disappearance of vegetation cover in the host country

leading to climate change related issues and their irreversible effects. In places

where resources are already stretched thin, friction between refugees and host- community nationals has emerged over land usage, access to employment and

government services, and environmental degradation particularly in settlement

camps. Little information is available on the present and past impacts of settling

refugees and host-communities on land use changes, vegetation changes and

degradation. This study used (Arc map 10.8 software) to determine the current and

past spatial areal-extent of changes from 2010-2020, to suggest possible measures

to restore the degraded environment. Findings revealed a rarefied increase in areas

under subsistence-farming and built-ups while the losses were seen in savannah- grasslands and woodlands. In 2020, the most significant increases in the land were

experienced in built-up-areas and farming. The most degraded vegetation types

were savannah-grassland and woodlands. These were primarily attributed to

unending activities of deforestation, bush-burning, high-refugee population, land- conflicts with host-communities. Thus, unless sustainable farming and energy- saving practices are promoted and adopted, adopting controlled bush burning the

landscape is likely to remain not even with remnants of green-cover. There is a need

to promote a shift from use of non-renewable energy sources like charcoal to

renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources like biogas, use of

briquettes which are relatively cheaper and affordable by the majority and have the

potential to effectively substitute wood and charcoal that have massively led to

deforestation and its effects.

Keywords: Refugees, Settlement camps, Environmental degradation, Host communities

and West Nile sub regions.

INTRODUCTION

More than 40-million people globally have been forced to leave or flee their homes due to

conflict, violence, and human rights violations either as refugees or internally displaced persons

(IDPs) (Kamara et al., 2017).Based on changes in migrant stock data over time, an estimated

35-40 million people worldwide migrate every five years (Abel, 2016). However, data on

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migration flows – people entering and exiting a certain country per year – are generally

available only for a few countries.

By the end of 2020, 82.4 million individuals were forcibly displaced within countries and across

borders worldwide due to persecution, conflict, generalized violence, human rights violations

or events seriously disturbing public order. This is more than double the number of forcibly

displaced people recorded in 2010 (UNHCR, 2021). The increase in displaced persons between

2010 and 2020 was mainly due to the Syrian conflict, South Sudan’s displacement crisis, the

conflict in Ukraine, conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa, the flow of Rohingya refugees to Bangladesh,

the outflow of Venezuelans across Latin America and the Caribbean and the crisis in Yemen

(ibid.). Though the number of forcibly displaced persons increased overall in 2020, there were

an estimated 1.5 million fewer arrivals of new refugees and asylum seekers in 2020 compared

to 2019, indicating that many of those seeking international protection were stranded due to

COVID-related measures (Migration & Portal, 2021.).

As of the end of 2012, the total number of people internally displaced by armed conflict,

generalized violence and human rights abuses worldwide was estimated to be 28.8 million

which represents an increase of 2.4 million on the previous year (2011), and is the highest

figure that has ever been recorded (IDMC 2012).

At mid-year 2020, the stock of international migrants – the total number of people residing in

a country other than their country of birth – was estimated at 281 million compared to about

173 million at mid-year 2000, and 153 million at mid-year 1990 (UN DESA, 2020). After the

decline recorded in 2017 largely due to the drop in the number of humanitarian migrant

inflows, migration flows to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) countries started to rise again in 2018 and amounted to about 5.3 million new

permanent immigrants (OECD, 2019).

By the end of 2020, 82.4 million individuals were forcibly displaced within countries and across

borders worldwide due to persecution, conflict, generalized violence, human rights violations

or events seriously disturbing public order. This is more than double the number of forcibly

displaced people recorded in 2010 (UNHCR, 2021).

According to International Association for the Study of Forced Migration (IASFM) 2002, forced

migration is usually related to the movements of refugees and internally displaced persons

(IDPs). Forced migration is a phenomenon that has existed throughout human history and it is

different from voluntary migration (Byrne 1996: 8). UNHCR describes IDPs as: persons who

have been forced or obliged to flee or leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in

particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of

generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human made disasters, and who

have not crossed an internationally recognized state border (UNHCR 1998:1) According to the

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR 2002:1- 2), there are about 50 million

uprooted people around the world, including both refugees and internally displaced persons

(IDPs).

In Africa, refugees who have crossed the boarders of their countries are still numerous with

persistent conflicts in South Sudan, Somalia, DRC, Northern Mali, and Libya among others. In

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

2018, of the 20million refugees in the world, 7 million refugees were in Africa. The internally

Displacement Monitoring Center (IDMC 2019) report indicated that there were 16.8 million

African s displaced with in their own countries attributed to community violence.

Uganda’s experience with forced migration is as old as the history of the country itself. The

refugee and internal displacement in Uganda assume a unique dichotomy. While Uganda is a

refugee receiving country since pre-independence, making it a preferred and accessible

destination of refugees in the great lake region, the political history of the country gas also

churned out refugees to many parts of the word and caused displacements of Ugandans in

millions. Currently Uganda hosts refugees from Rwanda, DRC,South Sudan, Somalia and Sudan.

As a result, many refugees’ and IDPs’s settlement camps are continuously increasing (Child

Voice Organization Report, 2017).

Uganda is one of the leading host countries for refugees in the East and Horn of Africa. Uganda’s

location among instable neighboring countries and its open-door policy to refugees has seen a

big number of refugees flowing into the country from Southern Sudan, Rwanda, Somalia,

Burundi, Eritrea, Kenya, Ethiopia (85,183, 791,631 and 1,154352 refugees in 2007, mid-2016

and 2018 respectively) and Democratic Republic of Congo (451956 refugees in mid-2016).

Uganda hosted 228,959 ,940,835 and 1,154,352 refugees in 2007 mid-2016 and 2018

respectively(Ronald & Ronald, 2022).

Migration and Internal displacement have been a common occurrence in Uganda particularly

in West Nile region since the late 1800s.The large and protract influx of migration and displaced

persons in various hosting regions in Uganda is said to have brought about severe and

continuous disappearance of vegetation cover and landscape change in the host country leading

to climate change related issues and their irreversible effects. In places where resources are

already stretched thin, friction between refugees and host-community nationals has emerged

over land usage, access to employment and government services, and environmental

degradation particularly in settlement camps. However, studies that examine the entire

spectrum of the socio-ecological dimensions of migration and internal displacement in Uganda

are scarce. The problem, if not well managed, may seriously lower the UNDP’s Human

Development ranking and sustainability of any country(Babarinde, 2014).

Several studies have been carried for instance (Dunovant, 2016)focused his study on protection

in displacement and protection on return, (Kamara et al., 2017)whose emphasis was on social

and political dimension of internal displacement but exclusive of migration

aspect,Babugwa(2007) emphasized impacts of forced migration on women and development.

He therefore did not consider displacement of men yet they are also a vulnerable group, (Long

& Sabates-wheeler, 2017)looked at migration, displacement and social protection, Kavita.S

(2001) based his study on forced migration under five mortality.

All the above study did not give details on the socio-ecological intricacies and benefits which is

highly interconnected with migration and displacement. It is therefore on this basis that this

study intends to explore the socio-ecological dimension of migration and displacement in

Uganda specifically to examine the spatial and temporal extent of landscape and vegetation

change in West Nile (BidiBidi camp), to assess the causes of landscape and vegetation

degradation in West Nile.

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History of Refugees in Uganda

Uganda's rigorous involvement with refugees and the refugee problem started in 1955 when

Uganda hosted approximately 78,000 Southern Sudanese refugees (Pirou~ 1988:24). In

1959/1960 influxes of Congolese and Rwandese refugees entered the western part of Uganda.

Uganda in 1972 expelled its own citizens of · Asian origin followed by the political and academic

intelligentsia. In 1980, almost the entire population of West Nile region was forced to seek

refuge in the neighboring countries like Sudan and Congo (former Zaire)

For many Ugandans, displacement is a painful memory of a recent past. The tyrannical rule of

President Idi Amin from 1971 to 1979 left hundreds of thousands of people internally displaced

or forced into exile.

The Resistance War, was a civil war fought in Uganda by the official Ugandan government and

its armed wing, the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA), against a number of rebel

groups, most importantly the National Resistance Army (NRA), from 1980 to 1986 also caused

a lot of displacement and migration of thousands of people.

More recently, warlord Joseph Kony and the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) wreaked havoc on

northern Uganda in the early 2000s. By the peak of the conflict in 2005, an estimated 1.8 million

people had been internally displaced. The 14-year Kony (LRA) war with the government of

Uganda affecting mostly the districts of Gulu and Kitgum and the immediate surrounding areas

has created a sizeable number of refugees outside Uganda and thousands of internally displaced

in Uganda.

Following the death of Garang in 2005 a wave of insecurity kicked off and at least 6,000 refugees

had been expected to register for repatriation Kiryandongo refugee settlement, in Uganda’s

western district of Masindi, houses some 15,800 Sudanese refugees(Mulumba, 1987).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The Bidi Bidi settlement camp is located in West Nile sub-region in Yumbe District. The district

is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south and west, by South Sudan to

the north and by the Albert Nile to the East(Figure 1). Bidi Bidi camp is sub divided into five

settlement zones each under a zone leader. The sub-region received its name from being located

on the western side of the Albert Nile. Military leader and former president of Uganda, Idi Amin,

first gained prominence in the West Nile region before staging a military coup and

usurping Milton Obote in 1971.

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

Figure 1: Location and extent of Bidi Bidi settlement camp, Yumbe District

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Climate of the Region

Rainfall occurs from March to November; average rainfall at the study site is 878.2 mm per

annum with a range of 592-1,210.2 mm (Monaghan et al. 2012). The mean annual temperature

is 23.6 o C with a range of 22.5-24.4.

The mean annual temperature is 23.6 o C with a range of 22.5-24.4 o C (Monaghan et al. 2012).

The altitude at the trap site is approximately 654m (2,145ft) above sea level.

The average annual precipitation at the study site is 980 mm (range 665-1,160 mm) and the

average daily temperature is 22.2°C (range 21.3-22.7°C) (Monaghan et al. 2012).

Figure 2: Photographic view of Bibi Bibi refugee settlement camp in in Yumbe

Data Collection and Preparation

The assesement involveld review of migration and socio-ecological literature related

documents and other secondary sources that included books and journal articles,technical

reports and policies.The documentary review included migration and displamement across the

entire countryaimed at undertstandong the intracacies and bemefits of migration and

displacement to the host communities in the country.secondary data was already colected and

published by other reserachers.Key sources of secondary data included research

journals,reports by NGOs,information collected by governement departments, and data that

was originally collected for other research purposes. Data were generated through Focus Group

Discussion and interviewing camp leaders, government officials, local leaders, the refugee

settlement managers and community members. In this study data on forced migration aspect

and displaced persons was revieved in accordance to the established research objectives.The

study largely relied on online libraries for data relating to the research objectives.

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

A combination of multitemporal Landsat satellite images was used in this study. Three Landsat

images, each representing a decade from 2010 to 2020, were acquired from the United States

Geological Survey (USGS) Earth explorer website (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov. Path and

Raw of 170/059 and a cloud cover of less than 30% were used in the search criteria.

It should be noted that Landsat images of the study area for the specific year 2010 and 2015

were characterised high cloud cover and this necessitated the use of the most adjacent year (-

1 or +1 to this decade). The other thing to note is that the study area lacked a one whole sum

Landsat image to cover altogether and therefore we resorted to mosaicking the right and right

images from which we later extracted the full image of the study area.

Particularly, Landsat images were prioritized over other images in this study because of its rich

historic database (10 million Landsat scenes) back dating up to 1972. The images are also

medium resolution (30 × 30 m) per pixel. The study also considered major changes that could

be visible in satellite images after every decade at most.

Training datasets (separate from validation data), averaging 30 training samples per land cover

class, were randomly created in the image using visible land cover classes. Signature files were

generated for training maximum likelihood.

The study adopted the following steps as used in land cover change studies: data collection,

image pre-processing and development of classification scheme, training, image classification,

ground trothing and change dictation. A combination of ArcGIS 10.6.1, software packages, and

Google Earth Pro was used in various stages of image preparation and analysis for this study.

Accuracy Assessment

The accuracy assessment of the classified images was assessed and this was performed by

comparing a map created by using remote sensing analysis to a reference map based on

different information sources such as Google earth pro and original images or maps for those

time periods where Google earth is not available (Nagendra et al., 2013). For performing this

analysis randomly selected points were taken as references for the land cover maps of 2010

and 2015. An interpretation was made of how close the newly produced land use/cover map

from the remotely sensed data matches the reference map. A 2020 classified map was used as

a reference when overlaid on other old two maps of 2010 and 2020.

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Table 1: Land cover classification scheme used in the study

Land cover class Description

Woodland Degraded or encroached part of the mixed natural forest with indigenous trees,

top layer trees less than 20% cover, and second layer mixed with shrubs and

bush, consisting of seasonal broadleaf tree communities with an annual cycle

of leaf-on and leaf-off periods. It includes both planted and natural resources

Grass land Extensively used grasslands with or without the presence of farm structures

such as fences, shelters, enclosures and watering places

Built up This was mainly characterised by semi-permanent infrastructure put up by the

refugees as residential places in the study area. All built areas and artificially

paved surfaces including (rural and urban) residential and service areas,

industrial and commercial areas, transportation and communication routes,

mine, dump, and construction sites, and green urban/mixed urban

Farming Mainly area of land under seasonal and perennial (food or cash) crop

cultivations: mixed farms of bananas, coffee, maize, beans, cabbages, and any

other vegetables.

Landsat Image Classification

The Maximum Likelihood (ML) method performed was used during image classification since

supervised classification is commonly used because it is simple and quick to implement, allows

a clear interpretation of the outcomes, and mostly delivers a satisfactory accuracy.

Change Detection

Change detection analysis was performed using the post-classification comparison (PCC)

technique based on supervised classification products. The method involved overlaying

independently classified coincident thematic maps and comparing their corresponding classes

to determine change transitions starting with the latest year (2020).

In this study, three registered and independently classified images (2010, 2015 and 2020)

covering a decade were used to calculate major changes in land cover. Using the back dating

approach, the classified 2020 image was used as a reference to classify older images. In order

to ensure that the changes are not arising from noise, especially for the older image (2010 and

2015), the 2020 image was superimposed on older image(s) to identify changes, hence creating

respective land cover maps for the older years (2010 and 2015).

Equation (1) below was used to determine the Magnitude of Change, MoC (km2):

Magnitude of Change, MoC km2 = Yf − Yi (1)

Where Yi = Class Area (km2) at the initial year, Yf = Class Area (km2) at the final year, and n

= number of years of the time period.

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Extent And Trend of Vegetation and Land Use Changes in Bidi Bidi Refugee Settlement

Between 2010 and 2020

The study involved establish the spatial extent of vegetation changes i.e., woodland and

savannah grass land experienced in Yumbe district mainly focusing on Bidi Bidi settlement

camp between 2010-2020.This range of years was opted for given the fact that previous studies

conducted in the region considered a very small range (3 years) that is doubtable to effectively

detect land use/land cover changes. It was also in correlation with the wave of insecurity when

there was disagreement after the death of Granga leading to influx of refugees in the region.

The spatial extent of land use/land cover of the study area for a period ranging from 2010-2020

were established using GIS and the results are discussed in figure 3.

Figure 3: Land use/cover change from 2010 to 2020

The results clearly indicate that savannah grass land covered the largest area 27776.25 (ha ) in

2010 ,2150.43(ha) in 2015 and 8350.45(ha) in 2020: wood land covered

4626.72(ha),3448.89(ha) and 1657.17(ha) in 2010,2015 and 2020 respectively: Built up

covered 311.5(ha) ),1546.2(ha)and 3238.83(ha) in 2010,2015 and 2020 respectively:

subsistence farming covered 1079.52(ha)and 2318.04(ha) and 15804.63(ha)in 2010,2015 and

2020 respectively.

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Table 2: The area coverage (ha and percentage) of different land cover categories in

Bidi Bidi settlement camp during 2010, 2015 and 2020

Year 2010 2015 2020 %Change

between 2010-

2020

Land use/land cover types Area

(ha) % (ha) % (ha) %

Grass land 27776.25 82.2 2150.43 22.7 8350.45 28.7 -65.1

Woodland 4626.72 13.7 3448.89 36.4 1657.17 5.7 -58.4

Built up 311.5 0.9 1546.2 16.3 3238.83 11.1 1133.3

Farming 1079.52 3.2 2318.04 24.5 15804.63 54.4 1600

Total 33793.99 100 9463.56 100 29051.08 100

Gains and Losses in Land Use/Land Cover in The Area of Study

The expansion and contraction in vegetation and land use in the area of study shown in figure

3 and figure 4 it is clearly revealed that major losses in areal coverage occurred in...savannah

grass land i.e. -65.1% and woodland vegetation -58.4% over the period from 2010,2015 and

2020.Howver, on contrary built ups and farmland expanded spontaneously in areal coverage

implying that the increase in the refugees in the camp was more felt due to their related

activities in setting up temporary houses and getting involved in subsistence farming in a bid

to look for a livelihood.

According to the refugees intervied in the camp, woodland losses were explained by the severe

use of firewood as a source of energy for cooking by the settled people while savannah areal

coverage contraction was attributed to build ups and uncontrolled subsistence farmlands. It

should therefore be noted that there was conversion of green environment to land use types in

the area of study.

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

Figure 2: The size of land cover (%) for the period from year 2010 to year 2020 for the BidiBidi

settlement camp

Land Scape Degradation

Due to severe loss of vegetation in the camp, the land has been exposed to agents of erosion

especially water leading to surface runoff. This has been evident in the bare lands in form of

rills and gullies. This has altered the land scape of the area from its original morphological

appearance. Also, the development of infrastructure especially roads in the area which

commences with vegetation clearance has destabilised the landscape and appears uneven.

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

2010 2015 2020

AREA(%)

YEAR

Grass land Wood land Built up Farming

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Figure 3: Road construction, built up, farming and developed rills

Results from other Researchers

A study by (Barusya, 2018) focused on analysis the open-door refugee policy, its motivation and

the consequent implications for the host communities and reveled that the policy had positive

and negative implications to the host communities both currently and futuristically. One of the

positive effects is that it has stimulated local production and exploitation of hitherto idle

resources because of availability of market and labour. On a whole, the findings indicated that

the implications are largely negative. Notable among these found was that internal peace and

security of host communities was threatened while environmental resources, local facilities and

services of the communities were over-burdened.

Another study by(Nakalembe et al., 2022) utilized satellite data to map land cover (LC), land

use, and burned area (BA) to assess their relationship in the context of large-scale refugee

resettlement in BidiBidi—Uganda’s largest refugee settlement. We show inevitable dramatic

changes in LC, e.g. built-up residential zones increased from 1.8% to 30%, while cropland

increased from less than 0.7%–25.6% during our study period (2015–2019). In contrast, BA

that affected more than 80% of the area was drastically reduced during the establishment

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Geofrey, K., & Tumwine, F. R. (2023). The Impact of Refugee Settlement on Landscape and Green Environment in Yumbe District West Nile Sub

Region, Uganda. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 139-152.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.13682

phase (August–December 2017). Substantial reduction in BA was observed predominantly

within the residential zones, but outside of the zones, BA was hardly affected by the arrival of

refugees

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Refugee settlement is helpful to the internally displaced persons but it is doing more than good

on the side of the environment especially where the settled people exceed the resource

capacities in the area. This has resulted into environmental degradation of different forms as

discussed which necessitates immediate attention.

Thus, unless sustainable farming and energy-saving practices are promoted and adopted, the

landscape is likely to remain not even with remnants of green-cover. There is a need to promote

a shift from use of non-renewable energy sources like charcoal to renewable and

environmentally friendly energy sources like biogas, use of briquettes which are relatively

cheaper and affordable by the majority and have the potential to effectively substitute wood

and charcoal that has massively led to deforestation and its effects.

References

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on Women and the Role of Land Management. Journal of Internal Displacement, 4(1).

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