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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 4
Publication Date: April 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/assrj.104.14508.
Elsaieh, F. M., Shohaimi, S., Nadzir, N. H., & Puad, H. (2023). Parental Smoking Practices and Children's Health Risk from Exposure
to Smoking. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 256-268.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Parental Smoking Practices and Children's Health Risk from
Exposure to Smoking
Fatma Masoud Elsaieh
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, UPM, Malaysia
Shamarina Shohaimi
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, UPM, Malaysia
Mohd Noor Hisham Mohd Nadzir
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, UPM, Malaysia
Mohd Hazwan Mohd Puad
Department of Science and Technical Education,
Faculty of Educational Studies, UPM, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Parental smoking's impact on children's health risks is concerning, particularly as
people spend more time at home due to recent global pandemics. This study
examines how parental smoking practices affect children's health risks, including
exposure to second-hand smoke, respiratory infections, and asthma. A cross- sectional design was employed, collecting data from 207 employees of four higher
education institutions in Klang Valley through a structured questionnaire in June
and July 2022. Multiple regression was conducted to identify predictors of
children's health risks, considering factors such as parental awareness, attitude,
and nicotine dependence. According to the study findings, increased parental
nicotine dependence, better knowledge about the harmful effects of smoking, and
more negative attitudes towards smoking all contribute to a decreased health risk
for children exposed to second-hand smoke. However, parental smoking behavior
had no significant effect. The public should be made more aware of the elevated
health risks that indoor smoking poses for children.
Keywords: parental smoking, children's health risk, nicotine dependence, knowledge,
attitude, perceptions, Klang Valley
INTRODUCTION
Exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke (SHS) causes chronic respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, cancers, and infectious diseases that can lead to disability and premature mortality
worldwide, exposure to SHS causes more than 600,000 deaths annually [1]. Tobacco contains
more than 200 potentially toxic substances, such as nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide [2].
Nicotine is an addictive product that produces the expulsion of adrenaline and dopamine from
our bodies. It is absorbed through the skin, mucous membranes, and lungs, but one of the ways
in which it is administered more frequently is by inhalation [3]. Absorption through the mucosa
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Elsaieh, F. M., Shohaimi, S., Nadzir, N. H., & Puad, H. (2023). Parental Smoking Practices and Children's Health Risk from Exposure to Smoking.
Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(4). 256-268.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.14508
of the mouth and the airways will reach the plasma, reaching the levels of the blood-brain
barrier and the dopamine nuclei that will generate rapid pleasant effects in individuals [4]. It
can also be inhaled as it can produce some muscle relaxation and activate the nucleus with
elevated serum glucose systems and catecholamine release [5]. Tar contains 500 substances,
which make it irritating and carcinogenic. Carbon monoxide is a rival of oxygen for
haemoglobin, affecting all cells [2].
Nicotine is an important psychoactive element [4]. Consequently, it reduces the oxygen
generated in an environment where anaerobic bacteria such as gingival porphyromonas and
intermediate prevotella develop. These cytotoxic and vasoactive substances in tobacco cause
vasoconstriction that causes a reduction in host defences and a lack of nutrition at the level of
tissues irrigated by microcirculation. All this is linked to the fact that it depends on some people
who use tobacco. The smoking habits of parents directly influence the health risks faced by their
children. For example, parents who smoke indoors increase the exposure of their children to
SHS, which exacerbate respiratory problems and lead to long-term health complications.
Furthermore, children who grow up in households where smoking is normalized may be more
likely to adopt smoking habits themselves, perpetuating a cycle of health risks for future
generations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tobacco contains more than 200 potentially toxic substances, such as nicotine, tar, and carbon
monoxide [2]. Nicotine is an addictive product that produces the expulsion of adrenaline and
dopamine from our bodies. It is absorbed through the skin, mucous membranes, and lungs, but
one of the ways in which it is administered more frequently is by inhalation [3]. Absorption
through the mucosa of the mouth and the airways will reach the plasma, reaching the levels of
the blood-brain barrier and the dopamine nuclei that will generate rapid pleasant effects in
individuals [4]. It can also be inhaled as it can produce some muscle relaxation and activate the
nucleus with elevated serum glucose systems and catecholamine release [5]. Tar contains 500
substances, which make it irritating and carcinogenic. Carbon monoxide is a rival of oxygen for
haemoglobin, affecting all cells [2].
Nicotine is an important psychoactive element [4]. Consequently, it reduces the oxygen
generated in an environment where anaerobic bacteria such as gingival porphyromonas and
intermediate prevotella develop. These cytotoxic and vasoactive substances in tobacco cause
vasoconstriction that causes a reduction in host defences and a lack of nutrition at the level of
tissues irrigated by microcirculation. All this is linked to the fact that it depends on some people
who use tobacco.
Nicotine Dependency
The usage of these non-combustible nicotine products has prompted serious concerns
regarding the health impact of nicotine on children and other vulnerable groups. The health
consequences of inadvertent or secondhand nicotine exposure from non-combustible nicotine
sources are less well recognized [6]. On the other hand, non-users have been warned that using
these items might expose them to measurable nicotine levels—children exposed to secondhand
nicotine-containing aerosols [7]. McGrath-Morrow, Gorzkowski [8] reported that children
exposed to severe health risks had high nicotine and cotinine levels in their blood. In addition,
mothers who used nicotine patch to quit smoking have been reported to have detectable
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 4, April-2023
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
quantities of nicotine in their breast milk [9]. Air sampling has also shown elevated amounts of
nicotine from cigarette smoking, with quantifiable levels of nicotine observed in nontobacco
users attending a nearby indoor gathering [9].
Knowledge of Parent Smokers
Inadequate health understanding is associated with a scarcity of health data, unhealthy health
practices, suboptimal health results, underuse of healthcare services, and increased medical
costs [10]. Adults who are parents to young kids represent a crucial segment of the population,
as they are responsible for not only their own lives and wellbeing but also their children's
health and welfare as caregivers [11]. Children depend on their parents to avert and address
health issues, and may suffer from their parents' insufficient knowledge and skills in this
domain. Morrison, Glick [12] identify parental literacy as a critical factor influencing child
health disparities. Low health knowledge among parents is connected to unaddressed
healthcare needs in children, unnecessary emergency room visits, ineffective injury prevention
measures, medication mistakes, poor nutritional habits in childhood, incorrect perceptions of
children's weight (with overweight children being seen as normal or underweight), and an
elevated likelihood of exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke, as per the research [13].
Perceptions of Parent Smokers
Numerous studies have explored risk perceptions related to smoking, particularly in the
context of smoking around children. Some research has shown that most parents believe their
children can be affected by the smoke of others to some degree [14], while other studies have
revealed that smoking parents perceive less risk in exposing their children to tobacco smoke
compared to non-smoking parents [11]. Parents' assessments of tobacco-related dangers for
their children are, however, influenced by their understanding of what constitutes exposure to
tobacco smoke. Recent qualitative research Urrutia-Pereira, Mocellin [15] suggests that
parental risk perceptions and decision-making processes can impact their understanding of
exposure when smoking near their children. Some individuals believe exposure only occurs
when tobacco smoke is visible or detectable by smell, while others have a broader
interpretation [16]. Although some parents consider secondhand smoke as part of exposure,
many do not. Researchers often ask parents about the frequency of their children's exposure to
cigarette smoke, which can lead to varying interpretations and responses to seemingly similar
situations. A recent study revealed that individuals asked about their own secondhand smoke
(SHS) exposure interpret questions in various ways, leading to the recommendation that
surveys should "consider different strategies for questioning smokers about SHS" [17]. These
differing interpretations create difficulties in comparing individuals and populations. Parents'
varying perceptions of exposure may explain their subjective accounts of their children's
exposure, their evaluations of the risks to their children, and ultimately, their smoking habits
around their offspring. A recent review of qualitative research discovered that parents are
unclear about both SHS exposure and the definition of a smoke-free home [17].
Attitudes of Parent Smokers
Various nicotine delivery systems are accessible in Malaysia, including cigarettes, e-cigarettes,
hookahs, and shisha [18]. Despite negative public perceptions, widespread anti-smoking
education, and strict regulations, parents have been reported to smoke heavily indoors. A
positive attitude toward smoking is associated with ever-smoking behavior. Díez-Izquierdo,
Cassanello [19] found that having a smoking parent increases the likelihood of children