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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 5

Publication Date: May 25, 2023

DOI:10.14738/assrj.105.14692. Bui, N. H., Cruickshank, M., McAloon, J., & Maguire, J. (2023) The Effects of TV Viewing, Computer and Gaming Console Use on

Academic Achievement: A Longitudinal Study. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(5).210-225.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

The Effects of TV Viewing, Computer and Gaming Console Use on

Academic Achievement: A Longitudinal Study

Nghi Hoang Bui

University of Technology Sydney

ORCID 0000-0002-4969-7908

Marilyn Cruickshank

University of Technology Sydney

John McAloon

University of Technology Sydney

Jane Maguire

University of Technology Sydney

ABSTRACT

Background: Early learning experiences are crucial for children’s optimal

development. The rising prevalence of screen time (ST) in children’s lives have

raised concerns regarding their effect on academic outcomes (Gingold et al., 2013).

Aim: This study used a longitudinal design to examine the effects of the amount of

ST on academic achievement. Method and Sample: The “Growing Up in Australia: A

Longitudinal Study in Australia (LSAC)” (Soloff et al., 2005) was the primary data

source for this research and focused on children from this cohort who were 4-5

years of age on enrolment (N=2954). The National Assessment Program for Literacy

and Numeracy (NAPLAN) was used to measure five academic domains: reading,

writing, numeracy, spelling and grammar/punctuation at two time points. Results:

Increased ST at Time 1 (T1) demonstrated a negative association with Year 3

NAPLAN scores in reading (B= -5.94), writing (B= -3.08), numeracy (B= -4.85),

spelling (B= -4.03), and grammar/punctuation (B= -5.74). Increased ST at Time 2

(T2) demonstrated a significant negative association with only Year 5 NAPLAN

scores in grammar/punctuation (B= -2.72). ST at T1 predicted lower scores on the

Year 5 NAPLAN in reading (B= -1.67), writing (B= -2.36), and grammar/punctuation

(B= -1.96). This effect was not observed for numeracy and spelling. Conclusions:

Overall, these findings illustrate that more ST leads to a decreased performance in

academic achievement over time, although this was not present across all domains.

These findings may have implications for educational settings, as technology is

increasingly utilised for educational purposes.

Keywords: screen time, media exposure, academic achievement, learning, academic

performance

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Bui, N. H., Cruickshank, M., McAloon, J., & Maguire, J. (2023) The Effects of TV Viewing, Computer and Gaming Console Use on Academic

Achievement: A Longitudinal Study. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(5).210-225.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.105.14692

INTRODUCTION

During the early developmental years, the immature brain is vulnerable as it rapidly develops,

and behavioural habits ingrained early in life have an impact on later development (Knudsen,

2004). The effects of behaviours such as prolonged screen time (ST) has been widely

researched and is recognised as a predictor of academic achievement (Poulain et al., 2018). ST

refers to time spent viewing electronic media, such as television (TV), computers, video game

consoles, smartphones, iPads or tablets (Yilmaz et al., 2015). The American Academy of

Pediatrics (2016a, 2016b) have recommended children aged 2-5 years old spend an average of

one hour per day on screens, and for older children to spend up to two hours per day, and this

is similar to guidelines suggested by the Australian Government (Department of Health, 2014).

Therefore, children engaging in more than two hours of ST per day is considered excessive in

accordance to these health guidelines for this age group. Poulain et al. (2018) suggested that

differences in children’s education and career opportunities become prominent in a child’s

early development. Studies have shown that increased ST, particularly during critical

developmental periods, may have subsequent effects on social interactions with family and

peers, regulation of emotion, behaviour, academic achievement and adaptive functioning

(Thomas & Knowland, 2009). However, the current evidence is ambiguous regarding the effect

of early ST use on later academic achievement in children particularly during primary school.

The effects of ST is particularly important for young children, as there is rapid development and

learning during the early years of life (Knudsen, 2004). Researchers have posited that children

become active viewers of TV by preschool age compared to when they are infants and toddlers

(Kirkorian et al., 2008). Preschool children pay less attention to perceptually salient features,

and are able to attend to informative features including dialogue and narrative (Huston &

Wright, 1983). Engaging with TV inhibits attentional processes and increases impulsive

behaviour, due to the fact that TV utilises frequent movements and rapid images (Anderson et

al., 2001). It is possible that this behaviour, when translated to the classroom, could present as

difficulties with concentration and staying on task.

Primary school-aged children are attracted to ST due to its visually stimulating and auditory

effects in comparison to their school-related tasks that require active intellectual stimulation

(Dumuid et al., 2017; Shin, 2004). ST, in particular to watching movies/TV shows or engaging

in games, may require less mental effort compared to learning activities, such as reading. One

hypothesis is that as a child’s attention to screens increases, the less likely they are to put the

mental effort into acquiring academic skills (Shin, 2004). Children will choose to engage in ST,

as it is visually entertaining and easy to understand. Overall, it appears that children have a

preference towards any amount of ST as it requires less mental effort and consequently affects

important attention processes and influences children’s ability to engage with academic

learning.

Time displacement theory proposes that time spent on screens may reduce time spent on

intellectually demanding activities, such as homework, studying, or reading for leisure (Shin,

2004; Syväoja et al., 2013) and lead to poor academic achievement. Sufficient sleep is known to

facilitate a healthy lifestyle and optimise academic achievement, and time on screens may affect

time spent sleeping (Faught et al., 2017; Syväoja et al., 2013). ST prior to sleep is linked to

increased arousal and disrupted melatonin production, and affects attention and concentration

levels, which are critical for engagement with learning (Kubota et al., 2002).

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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 10, Issue 5, May-2023

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

There is limited work examining the impact of the relationship between ST on academic

achievement within the under six age group and the majority of studies examine adolescent

cohorts despite the early childhood to primary school period being a more sensitive time for

learning and development (Thomas & Knowland, 2009). In current prospective studies that

focused on adolescent cohorts (Johnson et al., 2007; Nelson et al., 2006; Poulain et al., 2018),

greater TV viewing was associated with poor homework completion, lower grades, negative

attitudes towards school and long-term academic failure (Johnson et al., 2007). Nelson et al.

(2004) and Poulain et al. (2018) confirmed these findings, and further considered other

lifestyle behaviours, such as sleep and physical activity.

Interestingly, one longitudinal study followed children from five years to 19 years of age and

found that increased TV viewing of educational content at age five was associated with higher

grades in adolescence for boys. This trend was also identified in girls, however it was not a

statistically significant finding (Anderson et al., 2001). In contrast, girls who were exposed to

violent content on TV at age five were associated with lower grades in adolescence, where no

significant findings were observed for boys. It appears that ST that is informative, age- appropriate, and educational may facilitate learning and academic success, compared to ST that

is purely for entertainment purposes or contains violent content (Anderson et al., 2001;

Kirkorian et al., 2008). However, discrepant findings were observed and further highlighting

the inconsistency of results.

Most of the previous longitudinal studies have measured academic achievement through

grades rather than a standardised assessment tool (Anderson et al., 2001; Johnson et al., 2007;

Nelson et al., 2006; Poulain et al., 2018). In addition, Faught et al. (2017) conducted a

prospective study of primary school-aged children and showed that children who met ST health

recommendations were more likely to perform at an expected age level for writing exams.

Grasby and Coventry (2016) highlight the societal importance of the acquisition of both literacy

and numeracy skills. As academic achievement encompasses a variety of domains, such as

numeracy, writing, reading, spelling and language, it is unclear what the effects of ST is on such

domains.

The evidence investigating the relationship between ST and academic achievement is

conflicting and often derived from analytic cross-sectional studies. For instance, researchers

have reported that increased engagement with ST disrupts academic activities, and has

negative consequences for academic achievement (Aguilar et al., 2015; Howie et al., 2020;

Sharif & Sargent, 2006). In a systematic review of 232 studies, the authors identified 35 studies

that focused on the relation between sedentary behaviour, referred to as range of behaviours

with low energy expenditure performance (e.g. sitting, watching TV, playing video games), and

academic performance (Tremblay et al., 2011). Within this subset, 32 of the 35 studies were

cross-sectional and the remaining three studies were longitudinal, and only one study

examined children under six years of age. The majority of cross-sectional studies reported that

school-aged children exposed to more than two hours of ST daily, were more likely to perform

poorly academically, however 10 of these studies did not report a significant relationship.

Moreover, the longitudinal studies found that children watching more than an hour of TV daily

was associated with attention difficulties in their adolescence. In this review, the definition of

academic achievement varied across studies and was not well harmonised. These findings

highlight the discrepancy between studies and the need for longitudinally designed studies