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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 11, No. 9
Publication Date: September 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/assrj.119.17608.
Mohamed, A. M. T. (2024). Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Development. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(9).
234-241.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Development
Aya Mohamed Taha Mohamed
School of foundation and General Education,
Canadian College of Kuwait-AlGonquin, Kuwait
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the influence of bilingualism on cognitive development,
focusing on its effects on executive functions, language processing, and auditory
processing. The study examines different classifications of bilingualism and their
implications for cognitive performance. Findings suggest that bilingual individuals
often exhibit enhanced executive functions, such as improved attention, problem- solving, and multitasking abilities. Additionally, bilingualism may contribute to
delayed onset of age-related cognitive decline. However, some challenges, including
language interference and processing delays, are noted. The paper concludes by
highlighting the cognitive advantages and potential limitations of bilingualism,
providing insights into its role in shaping cognitive processes across the lifespan.
Keywords: Bilingualism, Cognitive Development, Executive Functions, Language
Processing, Auditory Processing, Cognitive Aging.
INTRODUCTION
Today, the majority of people worldwide speak more than one language. This not only helps
with communication across cultures but also enhances cognitive skills. Studies suggest that
bilingual individuals often excel in maintaining focus and switching between tasks due to their
proficiency in managing multiple languages simultaneously. Additionally, bilingualism benefits
individuals across their lifespan: from infants as young as seven months, who can more easily
adapt to new environments, to older adults, who may experience a slower rate of cognitive
decline. (Bialystok, 2009)
Language plays a crucial role in our lives, as it is a tool for expressing thoughts and emotions. It
is an instrumental tool for connecting with others and exchanging knowledge. Speaking more
than one language is necessary for a large segment of the world's population to get by in daily
life. A 2006 European Commission survey revealed that 56 per cent of participants could
communicate in a language different from their mother tongue. In some countries,
multilingualism is even more prevalent; for example, 99 per cent of people in Luxembourg and
95 per cent in Latvia are proficient in multiple languages. (European Commission Special
Eurobarometer, 2006) Despite the common perception of the United States as a predominantly
monolingual country, data from 2007 shows that one-fifth of individuals aged five and older
speak a language other than English at home. This represents a significant rise of 140 per cent
since 1980. (United States Census Bureau, 2012) Many Americans frequently use languages
other than English, not only at home but also at work and in school. This multilingual trend isn't
limited to the United States and Europe. The Associated Press has reported that about two- thirds of children globally are raised speaking more than one language. Associated Press, 2001)
In recent years, advancements in technology have enabled scientists to explore more
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Mohamed, A. M. T. (2024). Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Development. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(9). 234-241.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.119.17608
thoroughly how bilingualism affects and modifies cognitive and neurological functions in the
brain.
Bilingualism
The concept of bilingualism might seem straightforward in the beginning. According to
Webster's Dictionary, being bilingual means using two languages with fluency and control,
which is typical of a native speaker, and bilingualism refers to the regular oral use of two
languages. Commonly, people equate being bilingual with speaking two languages flawlessly.
This perspective agrees with Leonard Bloomfield's definition of bilingualism in 1935, decribing
it as having native-like proficiency in two languages. John Macnamara proposed a broader
definition of "perfect bilinguals" in 1967. He argued that everyone who exhibit a basic degree
of proficiency in any one of the four language skills—speaking, listening, reading, or writing—
in a language other than their mother tongue can be classified as bilingual. (Harmer & Blanc
2000)
Classification of Bilingualism
Hull and Vaid (2006) proposed a multiple-criteria classification system for bilingualism. They
define "Bilinguals" as individuals who are proficient in at least two languages, with the ability
to read, write, and speak in each. Second come "Early Bilinguals" who acquire two languages
before becoming six years old, treating both languages as their first language or L1. On the other
hand, people who started learning a second language after turning six are known as "Late
Bilinguals". "Proficient Bilinguals," who maintain strong linguistic ability and score above 85%
on standardized language proficiency tests, are also included in this classification Finally,
individuals who score below the proficiency criterion on these tests, showing less competence
in their languages, are referred to as "Non-proficient Bilinguals".
Other researchers like Paap and Sawi (2015) provided another classification. They divided
bilingualism into three types: harmonized bilingualism, double bilingualism, and delayed
bilingualism. Both harmonized and double bilingualism are forms of early bilingualism that
develop during childhood. In contrast, delayed bilingualism occurs when someone learns a
second language after the age of 12.
Harmonized bilingualism occurs when a child is raised with two simultaneous language
systems. This is common in households where each parent communicates with the child in their
own native language, enabling the child to develop two separate linguistic systems they can
navigate with ease. Another scenario is when a child who has already learned their native
language is adopted by parents who speak another language, creating a different linguistic
environment for the child.
Delayed bilingualism, the third type, involves learning a new language after childhood.
Although it's generally more challenging due to the closure of the critical period for language
learning, sufficient exposure and practice can still allow an individual to reach a high level of
proficiency later in life.
The last type is called delayed bilingualism, which refers to learning the language after the
childhood phase is passed, which makes it very challenging to miss the critical period. However,
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with abundant practice and exposure to the language, the person can still reach a great deal of
proficiency in his life at later stages.
Cognitive Consequences of Bilingualism
Earlier views often regarded bilingualism as a potential cause of developmental issues or delays
in children. However, recent research across various fields, such as education,
psycholinguistics, psychology, speech and hearing sciences, and neuroscience, presents a more
positive perspective. Studies by researchers like Ricciardelli (1992) and Torrance et al. (1970)
indicate that bilingualism can have beneficial effects. It has been found that bilingual children's
cognitive systems show remarkable variances from those of monolinguals. Studies have also
revealed that exposure to two languages from an early age can impact critical neurological and
cognitive development, influencing how these systems process and store information.
(Yoshida, 2008)
Language Co-activation
Studies have shown that bilingual people have both of their languages switched on, even when
they're only speaking one. When we hear a word, it doesn't hit our ears all at once; instead, it
unfolds sound by sound. As soon as we start to hear a word, our brain gets busy guessing what
it might be, activating similar words we know. For example, if you hear "can," your brain might
also think of "candy" or "candle" pretty early on. For those who are bilingual, this guessing game
pulls in words from both languages, not just the one they're currently using.
Some of the strongest evidence that both languages are active in the minds of bilinguals comes
from watching where their eyes go. We tend to look at things that we are thinking about, talking
about, or hearing. For instance, if a bilingual person who speaks both Russian and English is
asked to pick up a "marker" from a group of items, they might find themselves looking at a
stamp. This happens because the Russian word for "stamp," "marka," sounds similar to the
English word "marker.”
This phenomenon shows that when bilinguals hear something, their brains might link it to
similar-sounding words from either of their languages. Additionally, this activation of both
languages happens automatically, meaning that bilinguals often think of words from both
languages, even if the words don't sound alike. (Marian & Spivey 2003)
Executive Functions
Research consistently highlights the potential advantages of bilingualism on executive
functions, which include self-control and the ability to manage conflicting information.
Executive functions are critical situations where individuals must repress their habitual or
spontaneous reactions, such as remaining seated despite wanting to stand up, resisting the
temptation to take candy when told not to, or choosing a new approach for doing a certain task
instead of the familiar one. (Beaver & Wright, 2007)
Most research on how bilingualism affects executive functions and other skills has focused on
children. Kids growing up in multilingual environments often have to pay attention to the
abstract nature of language. Because they learn multiple names for the same thing, they
understand the differences between words and meanings and realize that object names are
somewhat arbitrary. (Ibrahim et all, 2013)
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Mohamed, A. M. T. (2024). Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Development. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(9). 234-241.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.119.17608
Moreover, Bilingual children often show improved executive control, a feature that suggests
bilingualism may enhance cognitive functions associated with self-control (Yoshida, 2008). The
constant need to switch between languages and suppress words from one language while
speaking another may act as a behaviour that strengthens the neural pathways responsible for
self-control.
However, after reviewing the existing literature, one can figure out mixed findings regarding
the extent of the abovementioned benefits. While some studies emphasize that bilinguals
outperform monolinguals in tasks requiring conflict resolution, distraction management, and
multitasking, other research findings revealed no significant distinctions between both groups.
There are even situations where monolinguals showed better performance (Paap et al., 2014).
Due to this discrepancy, researchers have suggested that the benefits of bilingualism might be
dependent on certain factors, including the specific types of bilingual experiences. It might also
be limited to particular components of Executive Functions.
Inhibitory and Attention Control
Bilingual people often perform better in tasks that require administering conflicting
information. Take, for example, the Stroop Task, where participants need to name the colour of
a written word. What makes this task challenging is the fact the printed word contradicts the
colour of it. (such as the word "red" written in blue). The cognitive system is forced by this
mismatch to ignore the unimportant word and focus on the colour. In general, bilinguals are
better at this ability as inhibitory control- than monolinguals. Furthermore, bilinguals are
excellent multitaskers. For example, they may quickly move from organizing objects by colour
to organizing them by shape. They are able to handle these switches more quickly than
monolinguals, showing greater cognitive flexibility in adapting strategies spontaneously.
(Marian& Shook, 2021). Additionally, research has proven that bilingual individuals often have
superior attention control compared to monolinguals. This advantage is resulting from the
bilinguals' need to continuously manage and choose between two languages in daily
conversations. Researchers suggest that the ability of bilinguals to keep and selectively
concentrate on different languages mentally may enhance their overall control of attention.
This skill is beneficial for bilingual individuals as it helps them avoid interference from one
language when they are using the other. (Ali, 2023)
Auditory Processing in Bilinguals
The benefits of being bilingual reach into deeper brain areas commonly associated with
processing sensory information. When listening to a basic speech sound like "da" without any
background noise, both monolingual and bilingual teenagers show similar brain stem reactions.
However, in noisy environments, bilinguals display a stronger neural response, showing they
encode the sound more effectively, particularly its fundamental frequency, which influences
pitch perception. This means that bilinguals have increased activity in their brain stem when
hearing sounds, suggesting they're better at focusing on important auditory information in
noisy settings. (Krizman et al, 2012)
Learning Advantages
Being bilingual can lead to practical benefits. The enhanced cognitive and sensory skills
developed from managing two languages may allow bilinguals to process information from
their surroundings more effectively, improving their learning capabilities. This increased
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attention to detail might also explain why bilingual people generally learn a third language
more easily than monolinguals learn a second one. (Kaushanskaya & Marian, 2009) The
language-learning advantage among bilinguals could be due to their ability to focus on new
language details while filtering out interference from the languages they already speak.
(Bartolotti & Marian, 2012). This skill enables bilinguals to retrieve newly learned words more
effortlessly, resulting in greater vocabulary expansion compared to monolinguals, who might
not be as good at filtering out distracting information.
Moreover, the advantages of bilingualism seem to manifest early on. Studies have found that
bilingualism can positively impact attention and conflict management skills in infants as young
as seven months. For instance, in one experiment, babies from both monolingual and bilingual
households were conditioned to expect a puppet to appear on one side of a screen when a
tinkling sound was played. Midway through the experiment, the puppet started appearing on
the opposite side.
To receive a reward, the infants had to adapt to this new rule; only the bilingual infants
managed to successfully make this adjustment. (Kovacs & Mehler, 2009) This indicates that
even in very young children, being exposed to multiple languages can provide benefits that
extend beyond linguistic skills.
Bilingualism and Age-related Cognitive Symptoms
So many studies have revealed that being bilingual has advantages for the brain and cognition
throughout the ageing phase. One significant benefit of bilingualism that helps delay the
inevitable deterioration of cognitive function is maintaining what is referred to as "cognitive
reserve". Craick et al., 2010, cited in (Marian Shook, 2021). Cognitive reserve is the ability to
effectively use brain networks to maintain or enhance brain function as we age.
Being bilingual may assist in maintaining this reserve by attracting different brain networks to
replace the ones that are lost as we age and by keeping cognitive mechanisms sharp. Compared
to older monolingual individuals, older bilinguals have better memory and executive control,
which can have positive effects on their actual health. ( Schroeder & Marian, 2012, cited in
Marian Shook, 2021).
Research also confirms that age-related cognitive decline and dementia can be prevented by
having cognitive reverse, which aids in postponing the onset of dementia by around 4-5 years,
according to recent epidemiological studies. (Perani et al., 2016)
Negative Consequences
One primary consistent area where bilingual children tend to lag behind is in receptive
vocabulary. Studies have repeatedly shown that bilingual children usually score lower than
their monolingual peers in understanding vocabulary in each of their languages.
This finding has been observed in numerous studies comparing monolingual and bilingual
children, particularly during the preschool years and sometimes in the early years of schooling.
(Bialystok, 2001) The exact same result has been proven by other researchers who stated that
bilingual undividulas have less number of vocabulary words in their both languages compared
to minilinguals.
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Mohamed, A. M. T. (2024). Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Development. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(9). 234-241.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.119.17608
To assert the abovementioned results, researchers collected the scores from the standardized
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test for 971 children aged between 5 and 9 years; almost half of
them were bilingual. These children had taken part in several studies conducted in the
researchers' lab over many years. The findings revealed that the average standard score for
monolingual children was 105, while bilingual children had an average score of 95. (Bialystok,
2009)
The reason why bilinguals have difficulties with lexical access remains unclear. One perspective
attempting to justify this issue attributes it to the fact that bilinguals utilize both of their
languages less frequently than monolinguals, which results in weaker links between the
necessary connections needed for quick and smooth delivery of the speech. (Michael & Gollan,
2005).
Factors Influencing the Impact of Bilingualism
Many studies are looking at aspects of being bilingual, including language usage, language
competency, and the age at which one first learned the second language—all of which may be
related to better executive functioning. While some studies find that early versus late
acquisition of a second language is a determinant of improved executive control, others suggest
that usage and proficiency of a second language—rather than the age of acquisition per se—
contributes to improved executive control (e.g., inhibition, switching, and monitoring processes
). Higher usage and competence levels have been linked to more frequent language switching,
which has been linked to better executive control and better practice effects. (Secer, 2016)
CONCLUSION
To conclude, the whole world is heading to either be bilingual or multilingual, which leaves us
with no option but to be as competitive as the world we are living in. Being bilingual not only
helps people live a better life or have a better or a high-ranking job but also affects them as
individuals; that is, bilingualism helps develop their cognitive skills. This paper aims to discuss
the main cognitive advantages of bilingualism. These benefits start showing early in a
bilingual's childhood and extend to older ages.
Most studies drew a positive relationship between bilingualism and having better executive
functions, such as inhibitory control. This results from the ability of bilinguals to suppress the
vocabulary of a specific language while speaking the other. Bilinguals also are proven to have
more focus and attention control, and the Stroop task has demonstrated this advantage they
acquire. An interesting finding was related to ageing, as bilingualism served as an anti-ageing
defence mechanism against the natural cognitive symptoms that co-exist in old people, such as
Alzheimer's or Dementia. People who are bilingual showed symptoms at later stages than their
monolingual counterparts.
However, some challenges mentioned in the literature were encountered by bilingual
individuals. Among these challenges was the difficulty of bilingual individuals in understanding
lexical items in both of their languages and one view explained the reason for that as a result of
using both languages less frequently than monolinguals. In a nutshell, the cognitive benefits of
bilingualism outweigh its drawbacks, and future research in the field might unveil more
cognitive and linguistic advantages of bilingualism.
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