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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 12, No. 1

Publication Date: January 25, 2025

DOI:10.14738/assrj.121.18223.

Burgevin, D., & Haines, S. (2025). The Power of Connection: Discovering the Effects of Formal and Nonformal Environmental

Education on Students’ Connectedness to Nature. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 12(1). 230-254.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

The Power of Connection: Discovering the Effects of Formal and

Nonformal Environmental Education on Students’ Connectedness

to Nature

Dylan Burgevin

Towson University

Sarah Haines

Towson University

ABSTRACT

This study examined the relationship between students’ feeling of connectedness

to nature (CN) and their exposure to environmental education (EE) experiences at

formal or nonformal environmental education organizations. CN, often developed

through EE programs, is a good predictor of environmentally responsible behavior

(ERB) and is also an indicator of self-nature overlap (Mayer & Frantz, 2004;

Erdoğan, 2011). The Connectedness to Nature Scale Revised (CNS-R) (Tugurian,

2014), and the Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) (Schultz, 2002) surveys were

administered at formal (N=3) and nonformal (N=3) environmental education

organizations (EEOs), surveying students (N= 5,994) aged 7-14. Students

participated in a range of program types including homeschool, summer camps,

extended day, and overnight programs. Aggregated pretest and posttest survey data

were analyzed to determine how students’ feelings of CN were affected by their EE

experience and how these scores were influenced by age, duration, and frequency.

Keywords: Environmental Education, Environmental Education Organizations, Nature- based Education Programs, Environmentally Responsible Behavior.

INTRODUCTION

This study examined the relationship between students’ feeling of connectedness to nature and

their exposure to environmental education (EE) experiences at formal or nonformal

environmental education organizations (EEOs). It was intended to address the need for a

quantitative comparison between formal and nonformal environmental education

organizations in Maryland. The study addressed the influence of several variables (age,

duration, frequency, and type of environmental education organization) on students’ feelings

of connectedness to nature. Connectedness to nature (CN), often developed at nature-based

education programs, has been shown to be a good predictor of ecological behavior and to

indicate self-other overlap between the individual and the natural world [4]. For hundreds of

generations humans have lived in close connection with the land, learning from and feeling a

part of the broader natural world. This environmental connection has been a quintessential

part of the human experience throughout history [14]. Given the current environmental issues

surrounding human degradation from the local (ground water pollution) to global scale (global

climate change), the importance of being an environmentally aware citizen cannot be

understated, especially given that humans today spend upwards of 90% of their time indoors

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Burgevin, D., & Haines, S. (2025). The Power of Connection: Discovering the Effects of Formal and Nonformal Environmental Education on Students’

Connectedness to Nature. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 12(1). 230-254.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.121.18223

[8, 15]. This contrasts with the biophilia hypothesis which suggests that humans have an innate

desire to rekindle the connection with the land, a connection that our ancestors once had

[25,12]. When humans spend more time indoors, the disconnection from the land increases

while an individual’s health and feelings of life satisfaction wane [9]. But, as humans reconnect

with the land through experiences such as EE, they develop a deeper appreciation for it and

incorporate it more within their self-identity which in turn promotes environmentally

responsible behavior (ERB) [21, 22]. This demonstrates why it is important, for both

environmental and human health, that EE rekindles CN and promotes ERB. Within EE, there are

formal and nonformal EEOs. Formal EEOs are a part of the county public school system, only

work with public school students, and require educators to have teaching degrees/certificates.

Nonformal EEOs include nature centers and other organizations like nonprofits that do not

require teaching degrees for educators and work with a variety of students, not just through

the public school system. However, both formal and nonformal EEOs implement EE and nature- based curricula to establish CN and deeper knowledge of the environment.

This study addresses two fundamental questions in EE. First, does exposure to an EE experience

increase students’ feelings of connectedness to nature? Second, to what degree are CN scores

influenced by: type of EEO, age/ age range, duration of EE experience, and frequency of EE

experience?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Nature-based education has for decades focused on the relationship and connection between

humans and their surrounding environment [5]. It is estimated that humans have lived in

connection with and learned from the land for nearly 350,000 generations. As humans’

relationship to nature has changed, nature-based EE has evolved. However, the emphasis of EE

has continued to be on connecting people to the land that they occupy [17]. The connections

forged during these experiences have led humans to have a deeper understanding of their

natural surroundings and to act more intentionally toward the land [17, 9]. This in turn

promotes stewardship and conservation of the land and a desire to feel a deep connection with

the natural world [9,22]. The need to form this connection is acutely apparent and necessary in

the face of today’s environmental issues ranging from local watershed degradation to the global

climate crisis.

Aldo Leopold [13], in his foundational work A Sand County Almanac, outlines the significance of

viewing humans as a part of the ecological community. He argues that a connection to nature

has been lost and/or diluted and that it is important for the survival of humanity to rekindle

the connection to the broader community to feel the sense of belonging. Leopold describes the

importance of adhering to a “Land Ethic” that provides rights to the land and establishes the

land as a working integral member of the community:

A land, ethic, then, reflects the existence of an ecological conscience, and this in turn reflects a

conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land. Health is the capacity of the

land for self-renewal. Conservation is our effort to understand and preserve this capacity. [13,

p. 258] Leopold asserts throughout his book that being in connection with nature is the solution

to the ecological issues of the day. For in connecting and existing in tandem with nature, one

develops an appreciation and a desire to protect.

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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 12, Issue 01, January-2025

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

The importance of forging this connection was further substantiated in 1976 under “The

Belgrade Charter: A Global Framework for Environmental Education”. This document, created

by UNESCO-UNEP, established the basis and common core of environmental education. As

stated in the document, the goal of outdoor and environmental education should be: To develop

a world population that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and its associated

problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and motivations and commitment to

work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of

new ones. [23, p. 2]

In this way, educators will imbue their students with the attributes needed to create positive

environmental change and solve the issues that we face. These objectives outlined by UNESCO- UNEP are needed to forge a deeper connection and understanding of the natural world. Of

specific importance is “Attitude: to help individuals and social groups acquire social values,

strong feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in

its protection and improvement” [23, p. 2]. Attitude is another way of describing the connection

that the student forms with the environment during their environmental education experience,

for when attitude changes so does the willingness to act with the environment in mind.

Whether it is viewed as attitude toward or connectedness to nature, the sentiment is the same.

A feeling of connection and belonging with nature and holding nature close to your own identity

leads to environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) [21]. The biophilia hypothesis also takes

into consideration the human need to connect with nature. The hypothesis states that there is

an “innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms.” [26, p.31]. Mayer

and Frantz [31] expand upon the hypothesis by describing how humans have a “biologically

based need to affiliate with and feel connected to the broader natural world” [31, p.509]. Other

authors [37, 39, 40] support this notion that the innate need for humans to feel connectedness

to nature is deeply ingrained and can be used to study the influence that connection to nature

has on ERBs.

Why should we care about creating this connection? Kals et al. [25] found that emotional affinity

toward nature is a strong predictor of pro-environmental behavior. The authors found that

39% of emotional affinity connects back to previous experiences in nature. This exemplifies the

importance of creating emotional affinity and establishing long-term experience in nature. This

emotional affinity leads to moral ethics and a sense of responsibility that are fundamental for

conservation behavior (ibid ). The findings of Kals et al. (ibid ) further substantiate the biophilia

hypothesis exemplifying the human desire for emotional connection toward nature. The

authors call for this connective experience to be integrated within education.

Another avenue to instill deeper connection that many authors {3; 10; 34] have described is the

importance of allowing children to experience CN with an influential adult within their lives to

create an emotional bond. This, in turn, will create intergenerational connections with nature

and establish long term environmental conservation behavior due to these emotional

connections [25; 33]. This is crucial when considering the myriad of human caused

environmental degradations that the world is currently facing.

Frantz and Mayer [16] echo a similar sentiment. They highlight the significance of measuring

this connection to nature to determine how willing people will be to perform ERB. The authors