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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 12, No. 2

Publication Date: February 25, 2025

DOI:10.14738/assrj.122.18246.

Ri, N. (2025). Gender Bias in Indonesian Spousal Terms: Insights from an Online Survey. Advances in Social Sciences Research

Journal, 12(2). 17-37.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Gender Bias in Indonesian Spousal Terms: Insights from an

Online Survey

Nin, Ri

Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology

ABSTRACT

This study investigated gender bias in Indonesian spousal terms through an online

survey of 243 participants (141 women, 102 men). The survey focused on three

contexts: introducing spouses in public, addressing each other at home, and

preferred spousal terms. Results showed that in public settings, women

predominantly used suami (husband) and men used istri (wife), reflecting evolving

attitudes toward gender equality. In private settings, however, significant

differences emerged. Younger participants frequently used panggilan sayang (dear

nickname), whereas older generations relied more on kinship terms such as ayah

(father) and ibu (mother). Education also played a role, with those holding higher

degrees favoring endearment terms more than those with only high school

education, indicating a growing awareness of gender equality among educated

groups. Notably, Indonesian spousal terms present specific features. For instance,

panggilan sayang (dear nickname) exclusively used between spouses, signifies

progress toward gender equality within the couple's relationship. Nevertheless,

kinship terms such as bapak (father) and mas/akang (big brother) for husbands

highlight traditional family hierarchies, reinforcing male authority and suggesting

women’s subordinate roles. These patterns reveal that while spousal terms in

Indonesia continue to reflect patriarchal norms, societal shifts toward gender

equality are underway. Further research is needed to elucidate the underlying

reasons for gender bias hidden in spousal terms across Southeast Asia.

Keywords: gender bias, spousal terms, married couples, social values, Indonesian.

INTRODUCTION

A quarter of a century has passed since the beginning of the 21st century, and gender equality

has become a universal value in the modern world. Compared to the old days when patriarchy

was widespread, it has become easier for women to play active roles in society. However, the

gender gap remains large in Indonesia, a Southeast Asian country. According to the recent

Global Gender Gap Index, Indonesia ranked 100th out of 146 countries, highlighting persistent

gender inequalities (World Economic Forum, 2024).

As the world's largest Muslim population, Indonesia has a strong Islamic faith that is deeply

embedded in its cultural, social, and political fabric, and deeply influences perceptions of

gender roles. Around 87% of the country's 280 million people identify as Muslim and religious

principles shape social structures that frame gender expectations. Islam in Indonesia is diverse

and intertwined with local traditions, yet common interpretations emphasize family structure,

assigning men as leaders and breadwinners and women as caregivers and homemakers. These

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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 12, Issue 02, February-2025

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

gender roles align with traditional Indonesian values and are institutionalized through laws

such as the 1974 Marriage Law, which formalized men's roles as heads of families.

Religious practices also shape attire and behavior, with the hijab becoming a symbol of modesty

and piety, reinforcing women's moral roles expected by Indonesian traditional society.

However, gender roles vary widely across regions and socioeconomic groups. Urbanization and

global influences have spurred awareness of gender equality, with many women pursuing

education and careers while maintaining religious identities. Conversely, conservative

interpretations of Islam in certain areas reinforce patriarchal norms, limiting women's

autonomy and emphasizing traditional gender roles.

Despite these challenges, progress is evident. Women increasingly participate in leadership,

politics, and religious organizations. Figures such as in 2001 the first female President

Megawati Sukarnoputri was elected and the percentage of women in parliament reached

21.57% in 2024, symbolizing that Indonesia is breaking away from its male-dominated

tradition and overcoming the gender discrimination stigma in the Muslim world. Muslim

women's organizations advocate for rights within Islamic frameworks, showing that Islam can

support gender equity.

Indonesia's gender dynamics reflect a complex interplay between religious principles, cultural

traditions, and modernization. While conservative norms persist, movements for women's

empowerment challenge traditional roles, creating a dynamic landscape for gender equality in

this Muslim-majority society.

Although society is shifting toward acceptance of more independent women, obsolete

traditional patriarchal values remain deeply rooted in Indonesia, women tend to be seen as

weak and dependent on men, in particular, married women have tended to be viewed as lower

in social status. Once they are married, there is a strong tendency for women to quit their jobs

and take care of their spouses. Moreover, in the case of child marriage, they are forced to

discontinue their formal education, creating an educational gap; after marriage, they are

deprived of the opportunity to work by staying at home, managing domestic duties, shouldering

the burden of housework and childcare, placing themselves in a lower position both inside and

outside of the house.

Indonesian traditional values and religious interpretations often reinforce male dominance,

with wives expected to obey their husbands, preserve their dignity, and serve them faithfully

within the family units. This dynamic reflects a cultural norm in which women are perceived as

dependent on their husbands. Achieving gender equality requires confronting these deeply

embedded societal disparities. The family serves as a microcosm of society, establishing gender

equality within the family is essential for catalyzing broader societal change. Consequently, how

individuals refer to their spouses transcends mere linguistic concerns and becomes a critical

social issue in addressing gender inequality.

This study aims to investigate how Indonesian couples employ different spousal terms

concerning their age and educational background from a gender perspective. Furthermore, it

examines the sociolinguistic implications of these practices within contemporary Indonesian

society. Through an analysis of how spousal terms reflect and shape gender dynamics, this

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Ri, N. (2025). Gender Bias in Indonesian Spousal Terms: Insights from an Online Survey. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 12(2). 17-37.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.122.18246

study aims to highlight the role of language in the construction and perpetuation of gender roles

in Indonesia today.

Gender Bias in Indonesian Society

Language and gender study is an important topic in sociolinguistics. Language, a vital lens for

understanding societal values, can reveal how men and women are valued in society (Tanaka

and Tanaka, 1996). Gender bias in a language is closely related to the status and roles of men

and women in the society where the language is used. Therefore, it is essential to have an

overview of gender bias in Indonesian society.

In traditional Indonesian society, women had a relatively high economic status due to labor

demands (Nakatani, 2003, 2007; Reid, 1988, 2015; Tamura, 2018, 2023). However, women’s

political and social status remained lower because men dominated politics and religion in

traditional society (Geertz, 1961). Furthermore, women’s education was devalued, and

practices such as child marriage, bigamy, and unilateral divorce from men perpetuated this

gender inequality.

The first school for women was established in 1904 during the Dutch colonial period. Although

some urban elite women received a certain level of education and entered professional

occupations, women's overall status did not improve because the European gender ideology

introduced to Indonesia at that time emphasized the moral norms that women should be chaste

and obedient to their fathers and husbands. The brief life of Kartini [1879–1904], a pioneer of

women’s liberation in Indonesia, exemplifies these constraints: women were forced into early

marriage by arrangement with their fathers, were obliged to obey their husbands after

marriage, and even after receiving an education, remained subordinate to patriarchal authority

(Blackburn, 2004; Tamura, 2018, 2023).

Post-independence, the 1945 Constitution declared gender equality, but societal practices

lagged. The gender stereotype of young unmarried women as “submissive and convenient” led

to severe discrimination against men in wages and promotions, and women themselves also

accepted to work for lower wages and discriminatory treatment because of the inherent

patriarchal norm of “for the family, for the brothers”.

Gender equality in the marriage system became a significant concern with the enactment of the

1974 Marriage Act. While the Act established monogamy as the official norm, it permitted

polygamy under specific, limited conditions. At the same time, it reinforced traditional gender

roles within the family. Article 31, paragraph 3 explicitly states: “Suami adalah kepala keluarga

dan isteri ibu rumah tangga” (The husband is the head of the family, and the wife is the mother

of the household). This gender division is further elaborated in Article 34. Paragraph 1

stipulates: “Suami wajib melindungi isterinya dan memberikan segala sesuatu keperluan hidup

berumah tangga sesuai dengan kemampuannya” (The husband is obligated to protect his wife

and provide for all the necessities of family life to the best of his ability). Meanwhile, paragraph

2 assigns women domestic responsibilities, stating: “Isteri wajib mengatur urusan rumah- tangga sebaik-baiknya” (The wife is obligated to manage household affairs to the best of her

ability). These provisions highlight a legal framework that institutionalizes gender-based roles,

placing women primarily in the domestic sphere and reflecting underlying gender inequality.