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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol.7, No.12
Publication Date: December 25, 2020
DOI:10.14738/assrj.712.9465.
Nicholson, N. (2020). Rank and Representation: A Quantitative Analysis of Female Representation Within Entry Level Faculty Positions.
Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(12) 202-209.
Rank and Representation: A Quantitative Analysis of Female
Representation Within Entry Level Faculty Positions
Nicole Nicholson
ABSTRACT
The representation of women in leadership positions and as tenured
faculty in higher education has been an issue of concern for a number of
years across academic disciplines. What remains unclear is whether this
trend is also observed all the way down to entry-level positions in the
field of education alone. The purpose of this quantitative, correlational
study was to determine if women and men occupying the non-tenured
track ranks of assistant and associate professor were equally
represented in the field of education at post-secondary, credential
granting institutions in California (n=46). Between groups comparisons
indicated that female, assistant professors significantly outnumbered
men at both public and private California universities (p<0.0001), and
outnumbered men as associate professors at private universities
(p=0.0148). Within groups comparisons indicated that while fewer in
number, a greater percentage of men occupied the rank of associate
professor, thus outranking their female colleagues at public and private
learning institutions (54.5% and 44.8%, respectively). However, the
difference was not statistically significant.
INTRODUCTION
For decades, the number of women in higher education has continued to rise and in some instances
they are thriving. Women made history for the first time in 2008-2009. During this academic term,
50.4% of doctoral degree holders were females, thus becoming the slight majority (Jaschik, 2010)
after centuries of formal education. What happened during 2008 was not a fluke but rather the start
of a trend. Since the 1950’s the number of females in higher education has risen steadily (Easterly
& Ricard, 2011). Graduate data indicate that the gap between males and females earning doctoral
degrees continues to widen. In 2014 the Council of Graduate Schools reported that women earned
52.2% of doctoral degrees, while men earned 47.8% (Allum & Okahana, 2015).
These statistics would suggest that an increased number of female, doctoral graduates would result
in more women acquiring teaching jobs at the college level. According to data from the TIAA
Institute, the total number of female faculty members doubled that of men between 1993 and 2016
in the United States of America (Flaherty, 2016); which is a significant accomplishment for female
scholars.
PROBLEM
Though there is much to celebrate with an ever-growing presence in higher education, females
remain underrepresented in higher-ranking academic teaching positions. In spite of being
outnumbered, more males continue to hold higher paying professorships associated with additional
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URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.712.9465 203
Nicholson, N. (2020). Rank and Representation: A Quantitative Analysis of Female Representation Within Entry Level Faculty Positions. Advances in Social
Sciences Research Journal, 7(12) 202-209.
job security and prestige than their female colleagues. In a 2013-2014 report published by the
American Association of University Professors (2014), 32.5% of women held non-tenure track
positions, while men held only 19.6% of those positions. Though these data accounted for
representation across the country, in many disciplines and among higher-ranking positions, it is
unclear as to whether these disparities exist among entry-level professorships in the field of
education exclusively. It is also uncertain if such disparity is occurring in a state like California,
where system wide efforts are being made by the Universities of California (“Diversity: Faculty and
Other Academic Personnel,” 2018) California State University and California State Universities
(ZumMallen, 2016) to improve diversity among faculty.
Knowing that more males currently hold higher ranking teaching positions is valuable information.
However, it is just as important that the examination of entry-level positions by gender in higher
education take place. Data from the Faculty in Higher Education Salary Survey (2012-2013)
indicated that an associate professor makes an average of $10,000 more per year than an assistant
professor across disciplines (Flaherty, 2018). As a result, new hires at the rank of associate
professor will experience a significant financial advantage over those hired at the rank of assistant
professor. Whether or not more men than women at credential granting institutions in California
occupy the rank of associate professor remains in question in the field of education.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this quantitative, correlational study was to determine if there was a significant
difference between the number of female and male faculty members in education holding the ranks
of assistant and associate professor at credential-granting institutions in California. Though
previous studies have addressed female representation in higher education across disciplines, the
results of this study will provide insight into the number of females occupying these positions in the
field of education exclusively in California.
Research Questions
In order to address a knowledge gap within this area, the following research questions were posed:
1. Is there a significant difference between the number of males holding the rank of associate
professor and the number of females holding the rank of associate professor at credential
granting institutions in California?
2. Is there a significant difference between the number of males holding the rank of assistant
professor and the number of females holding the rank of assistant professor at credential
granting institutions in California?
With a new influx of female graduates in recent years from higher education and the field of
education historically consisting largely of women, it was hypothesized that the percentage of
associate and assistant female professors in California would be equal to the percentage of associate
and assistant male professors.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Female Faculty Representation Trends in Higher Education
Women are no longer as underrepresented in many higher education institutions as they were
decades ago. Social reforms in the 1960 and 70’s, the Civil Rights Movement and the creation of
Title IX in the United States changed the roles that women played in higher education as faculty and
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leaders (Parker, 2015). Today women represent half of new faculty members across disciplines in
higher education (Eddy & Ward, 2015). However, women are less likely to be holding the rank of
full professor and in many cases even the rank of associate professor.
According to the National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NCES, 2007 as cited in Easterly &
Richard, 2011) 57.5% of faculty and teaching staff were male, while 42.5% were female. Males were
more likely to hold the rank of full or associate professor (13.6% and 8.6%, respectively) than
women who made up only 4.4% of full professors and 4.9% of associate professors. However, than
10 years later, it is unclear if the composition of female education assistant and associate professors
is similar to other disciplines.
Relevance of Faculty Gender and Rank
Rank, promotion, and family
In the competitive job market for academic positions, receiving a much sought after position is
gratifying. However, the choice to remain in a profession is often encouraged or reinforced with
promotion or advancement. Though female representation in higher education has improved, the
ascension up the career ladder continues to be a slower process than what it is for men. At the start
of a women’s career in academia the future looks promising, but research suggests that obstacles
within the first decade of teaching present challenges that may delay promotion. According to
Parker (2015) female professors are promoted at a slower rate and have heavier teaching loads
than their male colleagues.
Compounding issues with workload, new professors are often expected to work more than 40 hours
per week to acquire tenure within the first 5-7 years of their career. Easterly & Riccard (2011)
suggested that the initial stages of one’s professional career often coincide with childbearing years
or familial obligations. Therefore, the promotion process could be slowed. Women attempting to
successfully fulfill multiple roles at work could be fearful that use of familial leave will negatively
impact progress toward tenure (Drago, 2005; Samble, 2008). These issues raise the question of
whether trends associated with career advancement cut across all disciplines, including education.
Since education departments are devoted to teaching current and future teachers in early childhood
to high school settings where children are the primary focus, one would assume that these
departments (or schools) would be understanding of faculty members’ familial obligations.
Rank and compensation
Imbalances in workload demands and expectations are not the only challenges women in entry- level professorships face. A significant reason to analyze the academic ranks held by women is to
determine just how much females are being paid for the work they are doing in the positions they
occupy. While salary differences between men and women have somewhat declined in the last 30
years, inequity persists (Toutkoushian, 1998). Aguirre (2000) asserted that the pay gap between
men and women can be observed all the way down to the level of assistant professor. A report by
the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) in 2006 (as cited in Lee & Won, 2014)
revealed that male assistant professors made more than female assistant professors, in spite of
holding the same job title. What is even more discouraging is that this pay gap can place women at
a financial disadvantage for the remainder of their career (Lee & Won, 2014). Considering the
difference one makes financially as an associate versus an assistant professor as well as how a pay
gap at the beginning of one’s career can impact one’s earning potential in the future, it would be